Gods of Management - 1444 Words

Organisational Leadership Mattersey Hall Gods Of Management Charles Handy, in â€Å"Gods of Management†, attempts to classify four distinct management cultures that exist within all organizations. He uses the ancient Greek gods to symbolize these management cultures or philosophies. There are four types of management cultures or philosophies present within all organizations. The four cultures are the club (Zeus), role (Apollo), task (Athena), and existential (Dionysus) cultures. The first culture Handy discusses is the club or Zeus culture. He uses a spider web to represent the club culture. â€Å"[T]he lines radiating out from the centre† represent â€Å"divisions of work based on functions or products† (Handy p14). The most important lines†¦show more content†¦This type of organization basically views management â€Å"as being basically concerned with the continuous and successful solution of problems† (Handy p70). The management accomplishes this by first locating or finding the problem. After locating the problem, appropriate resources are given to solve the problem and waits for the results. In this type of organization, performance is judged by the results or problems solved. The symbol used for the task culture is a net. According to Handy, these types of organizations draw resources from various parts of the organization in order to solve a problem. In this type of culture, â€Å"power lies at the interstices of the net † and is a â€Å"network of loosely linked commando units, each unit being largely self-contained but having a specific responsibility within an overall strategy† (Handy p72). In the Athena culture, expertise in a specific field is the source for one’s power or influence. For example he states that â€Å"[t]o Organisational Leadership Mattersey Hall contribute to your group, you need talent, creativity, a fresh approach, and new intuitions. It is a culture where youth flourishes and creativity is at a premium† (Handy p72). However, Handy asserts that task cultures are expensive organizations to run and supports his assertion by noting that these types of organizations are staffed by experts who demand their market worth. Furthermore, he maintains that these experts discuss in excess theShow MoreRelatedTime Management Is A Vital Part Of Completing Goals1019 Words   |  5 PagesTime management is a vital part of completing goals. In order to effectively complete projects, one must learn to perfect the art of managing time. It is fairly easy for one to allot his or her time towards insignificant areas. We often times tend to focus on smaller unimportant task rather than larger more important ones. This paper will detail my plan to effectively execute time management as it relates to work and the pursuit of my masters degree. 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Company Complexity Of Ge And Mcvay - 2135 Words

Company Complexity According to Ge and McVay research study findings, business complexity is positively correlated with firm disclosure of material weaknesses. They hypothesized that the â€Å"firms with more complicated transactions likely to have greater chance for a disconnect in the financial reporting process, and thus a material weakness (Ge et al., 148).† To measure business complexity, Ge and McVay used the number of operating segments reported in the annual 10-K and the existence of foreign currency exchange translation. Ge and McVay had two subgroups within their study: firms that disclosed material weaknesses and a control group of 2003 Compustat firms who did not report any material weaknesses. The Ge and McVay study proved their†¦show more content†¦In comparison to Doyle et al. study, Doyle and his colleagues hypothesized that the â€Å"complexity of the firm is a driver of internal control weaknesses (Doyle et al., 9).† To measure the business complexity of a firm, Doyle et al. used three measures to include the number of special purpose entities, number of operating segments and the existence of foreign currency adjustment. The findings of Doyle et al. were as predicted. The three complexity measures were higher in firms that reported material weaknesses in comparison to the 2003 Compustat firms, who did not report any material weaknesses. This indicates that company complexity is positively correlated to the disclosure of material misstatements. Company Profitability In relation to the Ge and McVay research study findings, company profitability is negatively correlated with firm disclosure of material weaknesses. Ge and McVay hypothesized that â€Å"poorly performing firms simply might not be able to adequately invest in proper internal controls (Ge et al., 151).† This would result in a greater chance of disclosing material weaknesses. In order to test their hypothesis, they used two profitability metrics consisting of return on assets (ROA) and cash from operations scaled by assets (CFO/A). In reference to the Ge and McVay research findings, as presented in Figure B1 , material weakness firms had lower ROA and CFO/A compared to the control group of 2003 Compustat firms (excluding material

Laser Intruder Alarm System Free Essays

[LASER BASED SECURITY ALARM SYSTEM] This Document contains Project Report of Autumn 2012 of Course CT-111. PROJECT REPORT LASER BASED SECURITY ALARM ? An Alarm is a type of security equipment that can be used to safeguard houses and property. ? Now a days Burglar Crimes are continually rising with each passing day. We will write a custom essay sample on Laser Intruder Alarm System or any similar topic only for you Order Now ? Many have lost homes and families through violent burglaries in many countries ? Some of them lost most precious things such as Jewelry, Vehicles, huge investments in banks etc.. ? This led to the development of ALARM SYSTEM Basic circuit Alarm Interface: ? We used LDR to detect Laser Light. LDR pin was Fed to Op-Amp input leg. ? Clock pulse to 4017 was taken from Op-Amp output pin. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) ? LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark sensor circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as 1000 000 ohms, but when they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically. ? Which acts as an sensor for our circuit. Op-Amp-741 ? The OP AMP is a ‘Linear Amplifier ? Its main purpose is to amplify (increase) a weak signal ? The OP-AMP has two inputs, INVERTING -2nd pin and NONINVERTING – 3rd pin, and one output at pin 6 1. An inverting amplifier ? Leg two is the input and the output is always reversed. In an inverting amplifier the voltage enters the 741 chip through leg two and comes out of the 741 chip at leg six. If the polarity is positive going into the chip, it becomes negative by the time it comes out through leg six. The polarity has been ‘inverted’. 2. A non-inverting amplifier ? Leg three is the input and the output is not reversed. In a non-inverting amplifier the voltage enters the 741 chip through leg three and leaves the 741 chip through leg six. This time if it is positive going into the 741 then it is still positive coming out. Polarity remains the same. How it helps ? ? When the illumination on LDR stops its resistance increases so the leg 2 of Op-Amp gets less voltage. ? Then it acts as non-Inverting amplifier. ? It gives high voltage to transistor which ultimately passes current to buzzer and the buzzer buzzes. 4017-Timer ? The 4017 decade counter has ten outputs which go HIGH in sequence when a source of pulses is connected to the CLOCK input and when suitable logic levels are applied to the RESET and ENABLE inputs. ? Internally, the 4017 contains five bi-stable subunits. These are interconnected in a pattern known as a Johnson counter. The outputs of the bi-stables are decoded to give the ten individual outputs. Operating voltages and currents of 4017 Timer: ? Minimum-6v ? Maximum-15v ? Max current-15mA ? Max speed of operation-5MHz Pin Configuration: Output waveforms of 4017 Timer: Sensor Interface.. ? What if some Authentic Person want to enter into say some Bank-Locker system in some Banks. ? Here we will provide a unique Identification card. ? We used a sensor to recognize and electronic prototyped platform to switch off the Alarm system. Basic Circuit for Slot Sensor: Slot Sensor Working Principle: It contains an Infrared Light Emitting Diode and an photo transistor. ? When power is supplied to the IR-LED it emits IR rays towards the photo transistor. ? There is a finite voltage drop across resistor. ? In the absence of light, output carrier has high voltage. What is arduino? ? It is an open-sourced free electronic prototyping platform. ? In our project we used the arduino uno microcontroller. ? Uno has five a nalog inputs. ? Six pwm signal outputs. ? In our project Uno facilitates the use of the slot sensors. Code: ? The code consists of two parts, both mandatory o o ? ? ? 1. setup() 2. loop() etup() is used to set the various ports of the uno as i/o. loop()- this part of the code is run indefinetly. void setup() { pinMode(8,OUTPUT); pinMode(A0,INPUT); pinMode(A1,INPUT); pinMode(A2,INPUT); pinMode(A3,INPUT); Serial. begin(9600); } // sets pin 8 as OUTPUT port. // sets A0-5 // †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. // as INPUTS. They take in analog inputs // from the slot sensors and OpAmp out. /* a communication link between Uno and computer is set at 9600 baud. */ void loop() { int a0=analogRead(A0); int a1=analogRead(A1); int a2=analogRead(A2); // four variables a0-a3 are integer variables // these take in analog input values from the // corresponding ports. nt a3=analogRead(A3); // the input voltage what ever voltage is represented as a 0-1024 bit value. if( ! (a0300 a1300 a2300 )) { If(a3500) { tone(8,10 00); buzzer at 8 /* a pwm signal with duty-cycle 50% is sent to a port with a time period of 1sec. */ delay(100); } } noTone(8); Transmitter Receiver Interface: ? Say in some apartments or malls if we use Laser alarm system, if there is any robbery the alarm should beep at the security guard/control room. ? We will transmit the message to all security systems in the mall/apartment So that we can alert them. We used RF-Transmitter and Receiver to transmit the message. ? We used Encoding and Decoding Schemes for protected transmission. ? For that we used HT12E(Encoder), HT12D(Decoder). ? For Demonstration purpose we are using LED’s to show the received message. Transmitter Receiver: ? RF module comprises of an RF Transmitter and an RF Receiver. The transmitter/receiver (Tx/Rx) pair operates at a frequency of 434 MHz. ? In this RF system, the digital data is represented as variations in the amplitude of carrier wave. This kind of modulation is known as Amplitude Shift Keying ( ASK). An RF transmitter receives serial data and transmits it wirelessly through RF through its antenna connected at pin4. ? The transmission occurs at the rate of 1Kbps – 10Kbps. The transmitted data is received by an RF receiver operating at the same frequency as that of the transmitter. Overall view of Transmitter and Receiver: TWS-434 Transmitter: ? TWS-434: The transmitter output is up to 8mW at 433. 92MHz with a range of approximately 400 foot (open area) outdoors. Indoors, the range is approximately 200 foot ? The TWS-434 transmitter accepts digital inputs, can operate from 1. 5 to 12 Volts-DC Encoder-HT12E: This 18 pin IC consists of 8 address pins and 4 data pins with a transmission enable(TE) and oscillator pins ? Transmission takes place from DOUT pin only when TE pin is grounded. ? Address bits are significant because at the receiver the decoder matches the address bits and latch the output only when address bits are matched. Transmitter Circuit: †¢ The messa ge is present at the Data pins in the form of logic state (1 or 0). †¢ Whenever a data pin is grounded along with TE, a 12 bit message signal is generated with its first 8 bits representing the address state and last 4 bits containing the data. The 0 state is encoded as a pulse higher duration and 1 state is encoded as pulse with shorter duration RWS-434 Receiver: †¢ RWS-434: The receiver also operates at 433. 92MHz, and has a sensitivity of 3uV. The RWS-434 receiver operates from 4. 5 to 5. 5 voltsDC, and has both linear and digital outputs. Decoder-HT12D: ? The decoder receives serial address and data from a RF receiver which catches data through antenna. ? It compares the serial input data 3 times continuously with its local address. If no error or matched codes are found then the input data codes are decoded and then transferred to the output pin. The VT pin also goes high to indicate a Valid Transmission (VT). Soldering: ? ? We used chip sockets for Soldering purpose, So that we can prevent chips burning out while soldering. We used female strip for soldering in order to prevent RF-Transmitter and Receiver from burning off’s. Individual Contributions Nagendra Chowdary Before deciding on this project of LASER based intruder detection and security system, we had ideas about two or three other projects. We sat down in group and took up this project because we could divide work to each and every member in this project. I came up with the idea of using RF Transmitter and receiver so that in case of intruder detection, we can alarm the security person at some other place. I also spent considerable time on studying about the Slot Sensors which we have used to validate the entry of an authentic person. Apart from this, soldering was not an easy task for us as we were doing it for the first time. We made mistakes during soldering and had to de-soldering the circuit many times. Due to this, we all had to contribute to soldering part in turns. Circuit assembling was the most important aspect of our project. Earlier we had taken up a circuit from â€Å"Electronics For You† magazine. We spent almost two days on assembling that circuit but it didn’t work. After that we decided to change the circuit and instead of using LASER detecting diode, we used photo resistors. We tried to make the circuit simpler, so I studied all the components of the circuit and tried to remove some of them to see if the circuit was still functioning. Apart from this, I compiled the data given by my group members to make the final presentation. Abhinav Tripathi Id: 201101001. We had decide to make a LASER based intruder detection alarm but I thought that it will be better to make it into a security system to validate the entry of authentic people. For this purpose I thought of making a card swapping system using LED and photoresistors so that when a person comes with a valid card the buzzer should not beep. Later, we searched internet and I decided to use slot sensors for this purpose. All the group members, suggested ways of integrating the buzzer and the sensor interface to ensure desired functionality. Soldering seemed to be tough task for us. I started with the soldering and was later joined by other group members too. I also made contribution in debugging the circuit several times when it didn’t work. All of us studied about the various components of the circuit. I did focused study of the Timer- 4017 and the encoder used in RF transmitter. Apart from this, I also devoted time to understand the functioning of the slot sensors and finding equivalent resistance for slot sensor circuit, implemented it in our circuit. Srinivas SriVasthav Bontula Id-201101025. After we decided on the topic that is Laser Based Intruder Alarm. I came up the Circuit . Our first attempt was a failure. In our first attempt we used Voltage Regulator IC-7805 , Phototransistor L14F1, Opamp IC-LM356, Timer IC-555, Transistor – BC548. Then we searched for various others circuits, finally while watching some videos on Laser Alarms We found out a circuit . In our second attempt we connected this circuit and it worked. The components we used in this circuit are – Counter – 4017, instead of Phototransistor in the previous circuits we used a LDR( light dependant Resistor) , Opamp IC-741. After we finished the basic Laser Circuit we came up with this idea of using an RF Transmitter and Reciever , so that we detect the alarm at the place we want. I also spent some time in studying and understanding the circuit. I did my part in connecting the circuit. We assigned tasks to every member of our group regarding the working principles of Laser Circuit, Transmitter , Reciever , Slot Sensor. My task was to study and understand the working of Laser Alarm circuit. First we connected everything on the Breadboard and checked whether the circuit worked. And then finally we soldered the RF transmitter and Reciever on the PCB. I also helped in soldering the circuit. Even after we finished everything our circuit didn’t function properly twice or thrice at that time I helped in debugging the circuit. Karan J. Dave ID: 201101019 I was very excited to do project after we decided the project of Laser Based Security Alarm. First of all I tried to find some circuits of such project in Google and YouTube. We found some 2-3 circuits from different source but in 2 of them we chased many problems regarding to buzz on and off alarm. Finally we got one circuit from YouTube. I studied about chips which are used in that circuit. I studied about LDR, OP-AMP and 4017 TIMER. I got the chance to know about inverting and non-inverting OP-AMP. I studied about 4017 TIMER from its datasheet got from the internet and I had known about that from my friends also. I studied about HT12E (Encoder) which was used in RF-Transmitter and HT12D (Decoder) used in RF-Receiver. I did soldering of some of the circuits. I did circuit assembling and debugging with my friends. I did also resource-management work for our project. I really enjoyed the whole project by doing this all things. Thanks to you sir for giving us this wonderful opportunity. From our project we have learnt team-work, time-management and we could feel that now we are the engineers. T Pavan Nagaraju Id: 201101024 Initially I helped in connecting a Alarm Based circuit Interface which consists of Voltage Regulator IC-7805 , Phototransistor L14F1, Opamp IC-LM356, Timer IC-555, Transistor – BC548. But we are unable to get The Desired Output from It then We Switched to a circuit that does the work of alarm and many of our group mates were not able to understand the working of IC 4017 Timer. Which works using Jonson Counter I understood the Concept and working principle of the Jonson Counter Which is basically made of 5 bi-stable (D-Flip flops) I understood that which a Logic from this 10 states of the Jonson Counter the output pins get hot coded high output. And get to know how this reset button be useful and Implemented in this IC 4017 . As This IC 4017 is made of n-MOS I applied my Digital Logic Knowledge and come to know that there will be some Dynamic Hazards. I had soldered the Receiver part in the RF Receiver And understood why encoding is necessary In any signal transmission . So we can have Bit recovery and Safe Signal transmission. I worked in circuit assembling and debugging circuits. I did the documentation part for the presentation regarding 4017-Timer and Receiver part. Archit Bakliwal ID: 201101005. When we started our project, our key concern was to make a security alarm. But as we proceed further, we also used the idea of slot sensing which is mainly used for the entry of authentic person in banks, buildings etc. But later on, all of sudden, I thought that there is no part of communication in out project. Then everyone realized that we have to do something more than just making an alarm. So, Then, I, along with one of my friend, came up with the idea of making receiver and transmission interface in our project. Soldering is referred as major part of making a circuit. Initially, it seemed to be difficult task because chips were more likely to burn but as I had a little experience with it, so it didn’t remain a tough task for us. I have also played keen role in assembling the circuit which was not an easy task. I have also contributed in making the circuit and have done detailed study on functionality of various components of the circuit. Specially regarding Timer4017,LM71 Opamp, HT12e Encoder, HT12d Decoder, RWS 434 receiver, TWS 434 transmitter etc. This detailed study helped me to know about the components and analyzing the circuit for resource management and documentation. DHARMIK THAKKAR Id: 201101006 Our Project was LASER BASED INTRUDER DETECTION ALARM which could be used for security system in building apartments, banks, malls, etc. The project was extended to validate the entry of some authentic person such that a person with valid card enters the buzzer shouldn’t buzz. For this purpose slot sensors were used to keep a check upon valid entry. The project further used RF Transmitter and Receiver interface so that if some unauthentic entry takes place security system is alerted which was accomplished by glowing LED’s at Receiver interface. My role for the project was study of chips which included analysing availability and functionalities of LDR, TWS TRANSMITTER 434, RWS RECEIVER 434 and DECODER HT12D. I helped my team mates in Soldering purpose as it seemed to be tough task for us. Soldering purpose was successfully accomplished without burning chips by the use of chip sockets and female strips. I collected information regarding various phases i. . Alarm, Sensor and RF Transmitter and Receiver interfaces of our project and analysed the circuit for Resource Management and Documentation that could be used for Slide Preparation. I also helped in Circuit Assembling. Prasoon Id: 201101036 After lots of idea’s our group stick to the topic that is Laser Based Intruder Detector Alarm in which we created a body which contained a main circuit that produced voltage when light didn’t fall on the LDR. The circuit contained many component that need to be study so I helped in understanding the function of opamp LM 741. The material for our project was hard to find sometime so I was the one of the prime candidate for fetching these material. Our circuit also contained audrino board, Slot sensor(for security system) and RF transmitter and receiver these circuits were also hard to make but our group combined to make it look easy. I helped in assembling these circuit many times. Soldering also was a main part of our project which was a difficult task, I helped in many parts of the task also we needed to remove mistake from the circuit and documentation which was also a combined effort, In presentation every one had there slides to make. At the last it’s a combined effort by our group. Ankit Chaparwal ID: 201101017. For the project everybody came up with new innovative ideas, at last we decided to make a laser based intruder detection alarm, but in group discussion we decided to make it in a security system to validate entry of an authentic person. For this purpose we used slot sensors. In the project I helped the Group members in soldering . Other then that I had assembled the receivers circuit with one of the Group members and also prepared Slide for presentation on LDR . Studied on LDR and thought about how it can be used as a sensor in our circuit. Anuroop Kuppam My involvement in the project , coding the Arduino micro-controller. In our project Arduino provides an interface between the slot sensors and the alarm system. So the micro-controller needs to be coded. The micro-controller takes the input from the slot sensors and then decides whether to enable the alarm system or not. Hence the operating voltages margins of the micro-controller needs to be determined manually. After this was done we used these margins in making the micro-controller work accordingly. Having seen a lot of coding samples on the INTERNET , I came up with a code which serves the purpose of the project . The code then was debugged in certain places and further processed and fine tuned to fit perfectly and decrease various delays that we have encountered in the course of making the alarm system. I also soldered the various components of the RF receiver and the slot sensor onto the perforated circuit board and debugged the circuit to make it work. How to cite Laser Intruder Alarm System, Essay examples

Smart Television Benefits And Features †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Smart Television Benefits And Features. Answer: Introduction A smart television is a hybrid TV with the all the features of a television set including an integrated connection of Internet and interactional features of Web 2.0. It is a convergence of technology between flat screen television, set top boxes and computer systems (Chang and Liu 2014). There are several benefits of smart TV like any individual can watch whatever they want in any time, can search anything with the help of Internet, can control the operations with mobile control and many more. The following report outlines a brief description on the concept of smart television (Lee et al. 2014). The aim of this report is to know about the benefits, features, strategies, privacy and security issues related to smart television. The report finally summarizes all the important features in the final part. Discussion on Porters Competitive Forces and Generic Strategies The five forces of Porter comprises of all the forces that are close to an organization for affecting the ability of that company for serving their customers and make profit (E. Dobbs 2014). The five forces of Porter are as follows: i) Threat of New Entrants: When an organization enters into an existing market, there is a high risk that it cannot make its position in that market (Lee et al. 2013). The existing organizations are barriers to that new company as they are already leading the market. ii) Threat of Substitutes: There is always a threat or risk of the substitute organizations, who are selling same products. iii) Bargaining Power of Customers: The customers have the capability to keep an organization under intense pressure and this affects the sensitivity of the customers for changing price. iv) Bargaining Power of Suppliers: Suppliers supply the raw materials, labor, services, and necessary components to an organization (Taehyeong, Sangki and Im 2015). They are sources of power for the organization when substitutes are present in the market. v) Industry Rivalry: For several organizations, this particular force of industry rivalry determines the competitiveness of that industry (Porter and Heppelmann 2014). The major factors include sustaining competitive advantage through innovative ideas, powerful strategies for competition and competitiveness between the offline and online industries. Smart televisions have acquired the entire market according to the five forces of Porter. They are giving intense competition to the existing industries (E. Dobbs 2014). As this is the combination of both television and computer system, it is accepted by all customers. Porters generic competitive strategies helps to understand how a particular organization pursues its competitive advantage for the scope of market acquisition. There are three generic strategies that help to understand this concept (Vishwakarma and Kapoor 2017). An organization selects to pursue any one of the of the competitive advantages, either by separating itself with the customer needs and requirements or by lowering the overall costs than the other organizations. The organization further selects any one type of scope either by offering the product in all market segments or to specific market segments. According to Porter, the strategy either targets the focus, differentiation and cost leadership (Shangliang, Liu and Liang 2014). These are considered as the three generic strategies of Porter. Home entertainment is the type of entertainment that is present in home by any video or audio devices. Smart televisions are considered to be one of the best home entertainment ever. It consists of the features of television and computer systems (Lee et al. 2014). Porters generic strategies claim that the market either targets the focus, differentiation and cost leadership. Smart televisions are getting the strategic advantages due to their innovative strategies. Moreover, they are targeting all the segments of market. Choosing Best Apps for Smart Televisions The major benefit of smart televisions is that these come with several applications which offer the similar aspects on tablets, smart phones, computer systems. These include social networking, live video streaming, music streaming and browsing of Internet (Shangliang, Liu and Liang 2014). The Smart Central 3.0 application platform chooses or selects the best applications for smart televisions. They are several applications for smart television. They are as follows: i) Google Play Music ii) Amazon Prime Video iii) Netflix iv) Hulu v) MX Player vi) Pandora Music vii) Spotify viii) Plex. These applications are considered to be the best applications for a smart television. Some of them are expensive, however, once installed they provide the best quality. Discussion on Privacy Issues with Smart Televisions Smart televisions are the combinations of computer systems and television systems. Since, these are enabled with Internet connection, there is always a chance that hackers or intruders are spying on the users (Lee et al. 2013). There are several privacy issues. The privacy policies of smart televisions mainly collect the voice commands for improving the performance of the smart television. A third party service is utilized in the television set that converts speech to text. This is the most vulnerable area for a smart TV. Encryption of the message hides the content (Shangliang, Liu and Liang 2014). However, this feature is absent in smart television and thus it has privacy issues and problems within it. Discussion on Security Issues with Smart Televisions and Data Sharing Any device enabled with technology has the tendency to be breached easily. Smart televisions are not different from this (Porter and Heppelmann 2014). This television even does the job as a computer system. The user does all the work through this smart television and thus deals with all vulnerable security risks and threats. These risks and threats occur when the user opens an application from the smart television. The intruder or the hacker gets easy access to his television and enters into the system. The risks that are common include the Denial of Service, identity theft, snooping, sniffing and many more (Vishwakarma and Kapoor 2017). Moreover, the moment the user shares any data through an application, the hacker gets the data and can intercept it easily. Summary of the Report Therefore, from the above report, it can be concluded that, a smart television is a hybrid TV with the all the features of a television set including an integrated connection of Internet and interactional features of Web 2.0. It is a convergence of technology between flat screen television, set top boxes and computer systems. The report helps to understand the benefits, features, strategies, privacy and security issues related to smart television. References Chang, W.H. and Liu, C.Y., Flexiworld Technologies, Inc., 2014.Smart television system having methods or means for accessing paid or subscribed digital content from the internet. U.S. Patent 8,711,408. Dobbs, M., 2014. Guidelines for applying Porter's five forces framework: a set of industry analysis templates.Competitiveness Review,24(1), pp.32-45. Lee, S.H., Sohn, M.K., Kim, D.J., Kim, B. and Kim, H., 2013, January. Smart TV interaction system using face and hand gesture recognition. InConsumer Electronics (ICCE), 2013 IEEE International Conference on(pp. 173-174). IEEE. Lee, W.O., Kim, Y.G., Shin, K.Y., Nguyen, D.T., Kim, K.W., Park, K.R. and Oh, C.I., 2014. New method for face gaze detection in smart television.Optical Engineering,53(5), pp.053104-053104. Porter, M.E. and Heppelmann, J.E., 2014. How smart, connected products are transforming competition.Harvard Business Review,92(11), pp.64-88. Shangliang, C.I., Liu, J. and Liang, F., Le Shi Zhi Xin Electr4Onic Technology (Tianjin) Limited, 2014.Instruction mode switching method and device based on smart television interface. U.S. Patent Application 15/033,588. Taehyeong, K.I.M., Sangki, K.I.M. and Im, S., Lg Electronics Inc., 2015.Display device and method for controlling gesture functions using different depth ranges. U.S. Patent 9,104,239. Vishwakarma, D.K. and Kapoor, R., 2017. An efficient interpretation of hand gestures to control smart interactive television.International Journal of Computational Vision and Robotics,7(4), pp.454-471.

The Wisdom I Believe to Be an Example of the Topic Personal Essays by

The Wisdom I Believe to Be Wisdom is too broad a term to be defined in a specifically objective manner. Similar to terms such as love and happiness, it is much of a concept than a word to be identified. Due to many experiences of critical thinking, I have come up with the most personal definition of wisdom as the concept knowing how to act in the best way possible despite the conflicts brought about by personal and rational reasons. Wisdom is all about control. Being wise is having the ability to control ones personal desire and interests to perform the best solutions possible. Need essay sample on "The Wisdom I Believe to Be" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed I believe the most comparable definition of this is the view of Martin Luther Kings. In his Letter from Birmingham Jail, he talks about the concept of justice and how people must act nonviolently to achieve it. He discourages people to resort to violence in terms of fighting for justice. Nonviolent direct action seeks to create such a crisis and foster such a tension that a community which has constantly refused to negotiate is forced to confront the issue. It seeks to so dramatize the issue that it can no longer be ignored (King, 2000, p. 64). His speech tells about how nonviolence can force the opposition to finally negotiate with the issue rather than fight it. Violence involves personal interests because most of the time it is ones emotions that drives them to commit such acts. On the other hand, nonviolence is a form of controlling oneself; therefore, the performance of it shows the ability of that person to think in peace and negotiate without causing any more harm to others by means of physical battle. Undergraduates Very Often Tell EssayLab specialists: How much do I have to pay someone to write my assignment online? Essay writer professionals advise: Winning Academic Essay Writing Delivered On Time Like love and happiness, wisdom is better explained subjectively than explicated by means of technical denotations from books. Together with Martin Luther Kings concept of wisdom and intelligence, we can come to a conclusion that wisdom requires patience. One must learn how to wait and how to assess a situation because impulsiveness would merely lead to more harm and failure. Reference King, M.L. (2000). Letter from Birmingham jail. Why we can't wait. Ed. Jesse Jackson. Signet Classic. pp. 64-84.

Why We Need Paragraphs

Why We Need Paragraphs Why We Need Paragraphs Why We Need Paragraphs By Sharon Reading a blog post or a web article should be easy. Some web pages have large blocks of text with very few breaks between them. When I see those, my brain does the TMI (too much information) dance and my eyes move on until they find something easier to look at. When you try to process an unbroken block of text, its like trying to eat a whole apple pie in one gulp. You may be able to do it, but youll probably get indigestion or choke in the attempt. Thats why paragraphs are important. Getting Attention Web readers have a short attention span. Thats why you need to make it easy. As you write, remember that you are taking your readers on a journey from point A to point B to point C. Paragraphs are just one of the ways that you do this. Web Usability When I worked as an editor, I spent a lot of time making long paragraphs shorter and making sure that each paragraph had a point. This also works for web content writing. All the advice I read on web usability suggests that you make one main point or cover one key idea in each paragraph. Then you expand on it a bit, then move on to the next one. That makes it easy for the eyes and the brain to process – and makes it more likely that people will read your blog posts. Using Subheadings Theres one more way to improve the experience for web content readers. Subheadings serve as navigational markers to tell readers whats coming in each paragraph. They can skip to the part that interests them, or get an idea whether they need to read the article or blog post at all. Use subheadings and small paragraphs and your readers will thank you and come back for more. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Writing Basics category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:How to Punctuate References to Dates and TimesHow to Punctuate with â€Å"However†45 Idioms About the Number One

The use of Sales Tax Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The use of Sales Tax - Essay Example The drive of capitalism for this country relied on many factors that included slavery, turned raw goods into products, factories, and the ability to produce such a drastic workforce. Hence, Smith’s ideas of capitalism along with an adequate tax system that can power the nation in its quest to be financially solidified. The use of sales tax in America is implemented at a state level and is utilized for education, infrastructure, and Medicare. Many cities and countries have their own special rules regarding state tax. In essence, there is no federal sales tax. Clearly, that is because the population of state tax varies based on population, deficit, and economic growth (â€Å"Rousse, 66†).   Although no clear of sales tax can be found during the revolutionary time period, the forefathers of the country did implement an excise tax on whiskey enacted in 1791. For instance, Minnesota does not have a sales tax. Sales tax is calculated by multiplying the original price of the item by a tax rate. Sales tax is also special in a fact because it is collected at the time of sale (â€Å"Rousse, 66†).    Sales tax is unique in its manner because it is only imposed once during the time of purchase. However, this rule can be modified. For instance, items such as used cars fit this description. In this particular scenario, sales tax can be charged on the same item multiple times (â€Å"Rousse, 66†). The common example of sales tax is prevalent in grocery stores in which individuals are charged with this tax when buying their produce and groceries. Researchers that study economics have comprehensively studies the effects of sales tax have concluded that it harnesses the local economy. One of the key elements that sales tax is utilized for is to fund education. Since sales tax is based on a state basis. Illinois is a prime example of this sales as the school system is injected with sales tax revenue (â€Å"Rousse, 66†). This is essential beca use the money is allocated in a very efficient manner that benefits the economy. Since the housing market is on the bubble right now, the sales tax that is derived from the properties are valuable enough to dictate funding of education. As a matter of fact, lawmakers approved sales tax as a funding source for school districts in 2007. Since the market is on the bubble, many economists say that it makes logical sense to facilitate individuals by relying on sales tax rather than property tax. The debate over sales tax has been the hallmark of criticism and critique. Many individuals feel that the sales tax should be regressive just like the progressive tax. Many people insist that the sales tax imposes a huge burden on low-income families. In addition, the government is contemplating the decision to charge sales tax to online retailers. During the year of 1992, the Supreme Court ruled that retailers don't have to collect sales taxes in states where they do not possess any leverage (â €Å""Should States Require Online Retailers to Collect Sales Tax?† ). Both state and the local government has been urging Congress to repeal that decision and actually charge online retailers a sales tax as numerous bills have been proposed in Congress. Many Americans feel that shopping online is cost-effective as it allows them to skip this tax. In essence, if an individual bought items from an online retailer, they are obligated to owe tax to state even though the states really do not have supreme authority to

African American studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

African American studies - Essay Example The evolution of slavery aided in the development of a racist ideology that promoted the belief that blacks are inferior to whites, a myth that persisted long after slavery was abolished, and one that is deeply embedded within our national discourse. Cultural racism, such as this, fosters a â€Å"we† and â€Å"they† mentality, a state of mind that is maintained through the socialization of new generations. The abolition of slavery did not mean that blacks were accepted by the dominant white society. The racist ideology that emerged out of the slavery system continued to influence how whites perceived blacks. Wilson (1973) explains â€Å"Whites rejected slavery as an acceptable institution in the North but were unwilling to endorse the view that blacks should receive social, economic and political equality†, exemplifying how the negative belief systems of the plantations were deeply engrained in American culture after two hundred years of slavery. Unable to accept blacks as equals to themselves, white Americans relied increasingly upon the system of segregation, as a means to communicate the message.Segregation between blacks and whites was reinforced by a system of racial etiquette.The 1896 Supreme Court â€Å"separate but equal† decision failed to clearly define equality, and as a result, the separation of facilities for blacks and whites created a need to clarify the social positions of the dominant white class. ... Lynching was regularly employed as a means to enforce the status quo, with over thirty-six hundred cases recorded between 1884 and 1914. Relations between blacks and whites became increasingly violent in character during the World War I era in America’s history. Black workers were competing openly with whites for jobs and housing, causing tensions to rise between the two groups. Having been denied political participation and strictly segregated in nearly all areas of their social lives, blacks found that their socioeconomic opportunities were severely limited. Race riots occurred in several American cities and discontent among the black population continued to rise. These hostile conditions continued into the World War II period, when more jobs became available to black workers. In addition to the economic opportunities provided by WWII, the conditions under which it was fought allowed Americans to re-examine their own racist logic. The racist ideology practiced at home was in consistent with the ideals they fought for in the war against Nazi Germany, a racist regime. Also, according to Marger (1991) racist policies at home were viewed [Student 3] as an â€Å"international liability† (235) when dealing with non-white nations. These changes in the national racial attitude, along with the 1954 Supreme Court decision in the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, helped push the advancement of black right civil rights. By the early 1970’s, the system of segregation had been fully dismantled and white supremacist groups, such as the Klu Klux Klan, were no longer supported. The historical relations between blacks and whites will remain in the collective narrative for many generations. America’s

Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Project - Essay Example The technology of the RRAS (Routing and Remote Access service) facilitates and supports the site-to-site and remote user data sharing and connectivity by making use of the VPN (virtual private network) or dial-up connections. A Routing and Remote Access service will offer XYZ Company’s end users facility regarding the remote access to our organizations network. Thus, staff will be able to create a site-to-site virtual private network connection among two servers at dissimilar locations. However we can have some of security related problems regarding the implementation of new Routing and Remote Access service technology (Microsoft, 2009) & (Microsoft, 2009). Question No-2: Project Goals: What are the business objectives (benefits and expected improvements) that will be achieved by completing this project? Is the problem/opportunities worth pursuing of RRAS? Through the implementation of the Routing and Remote Access service or RRAS technology we will have a lot of facilities regarding the corporate network data sharing and operational management. The main goals of XYZ Company regarding the Routing and Remote Access service or RRAS technology is to offer following facilities to business staff and management: However in case of new Remote Access service or RRAS technology establishment at XYZ Company we could face some problems regarding the data security and network privacy. In case of huge remote network connective we can face security threats from the outer world. For the successful technology implementation at XYZ Company we need to establish some of the fundamental key stones regarding the corporate technology infrastructure implementation. Below I have outlined some of following key stones regarding new technology infrastructure implementation at XYZ Company: By analyzing the overall project activities and operational tasks I have developed the complete budget plan for the project. In the above section I have mentioned

Studying The History Of Workflow Management Systems Information Technology Essay

Studying The History Of Workflow Management Systems Information Technology Essay 1. Introduction In this seminar, I would like to introduce the history and definition of workflow management system. In that, we can classified the workflow into several. Then, standard and types of workflows. Beside that, I also introduce the advantages of using workflow management system. Other than that, I also introduced one of the collaborative system which to assist in workflow management system, that is document management system. I will briefly discuss the history, definition and advantages of systems and usage of the system to help in workflows systems and related to document management. In groupware. I will introduced the history and definition of it. Furthermore, I will discuss about the area and levels of groupware with its advantages. I will linked and identified how do they work together to deliver a well manage workflow from different level of lecturer and staff in developed the new course and its details. 2. Workflow management system 2.1 Introduction In 1980 ago, most of the companies and customers were seen an crisis and obstacle. It was because of the structure of organization were very inflexible and slow to response the new requirement from the markets and customers. As the market become international, the competition between organizational increased rapidly. To overcome and increased the power of competition, organization need to changes their organization structure to faced the new requirement from market. Because of these challenges, computer sciences industry have to created and develop a new information communication technology to suited the new requirement of markets. So the workflow technologies was developed in early 1990 was an leading to the new trend of computer industry. Workflow management systems is comes from the word workflow, which means that is sequence of jobs/ operation to distribute to a person or a groups of people on a simple or complex works. It may also delegate a small portion of big task to distribute , work split to others people for controlling purposes. The most common described the flow refer to the document that is being transferred from one to another. For more detailed, workflow is an activity that can described the information flow, process of work and organizational structure such as functions and hierarchies into a work process. (Wikipedia, 2010) 2.2 History In 1990s, workflow management system was created based on workflow process and business rules. The main purpose of the creation is to resolved the paper-based task with electronic process. At the end of 1990s, the workflow management system was created with additional function like modelling tools, business rules process and others. But in year 2005, Microsoft was created windows workflow foundation to replaced the original workflow with others functionality like BPM (Business Process Management). (Wikipedia,2010) 2.3 Definition In workflow management system, they are different module to run the business process. For example, document images processing, office system and transaction processing was build during these trend. From the beginning, the system is more concerned about storing, retrieving and tracking the data and information. Later, the system will more emphasized on office system which e-mails will become the core module to communicated for workflow system to exchange files and documents among them. In workflow management, there can divided into four generation (see figure 1). In first generation of workflow management system, the system is more focusing on e-mails exchange and document management. Then in next generation, the workflow process are tailorable through coding. Third generation, the systems have the standard architecture then can fully supported with third party tools. In fourth generation, the systems can fully supported with e-mail exchange, workflow process management etc. WORKFLOW1.JPG (61753 Byte) Workflow management systems is a computer system that manage multiple tasks in an organisation to produce output to others. It allow us to define workflows for work of processes or types of jobs. Example, in a manufacturing company, the product of design document may from designer then pass to technical people to production engineer. In every stage of workflow, every individual is responsible for their specific task and jobs. When the task is completed, the workflow management system will make sure that people that in charge of the task are notified and the information they need to process in their own stages. Its also help to eliminate redundant jobs and others uncompleted task are followed up. This called dependencies, means the system required the dependencies of every completion tasks. Others function of workflow management systems is using to replacing paper document transfer (paperless). (Kà ¤mpf and Großmann. 2006). 2.3.1 Classification of workflow management system There are 3 classification types of workflow management system, that is production workflow, ad hoc workflow and administrative systems. Production workflow Production workflow are the predefined job, tasks to be process or need additional steps. For as example, in the claims of car accidents, they will involve several basic steps (identifying the parties involved, log the police report and confirm with the agent of policy coverage) and additional steps (handling bodily injury, compensate of property, repairing of the car). Production workflow dedicate the process and maintain the productivity. Ad workflows Ad hoc workflows are through discussions and created new thing for each workflow. Ad workflows always use e-mail to carry out the work. In example of groupware, everyone need to collaborate to create or work on new design on a new product. Administrative workflow Administrative workflow are combination of ad hoc and production workflows. Means that the flow is pre-defined (e.g. approval of expense report) and they will use e-mail to communicate with others. This work is normally used by administration for example of travel claims. (Kà ¤mpf and Großmann. 2006). 2.3.2 Standardization The following diagram will specified the standard for Workflow Management Coalition(WIMC) which included characteristics, functions and interfaces. WORKFLOW2.JPG (48021 Byte) by Shegalov, Gillmann, and Weikum (2001) Refer to figure 2, the standardization of workflow are exists in three level. The first levels is how the workflow fit all the process together. Second level is abstract specification means that what the data of function needed. Third level is the details of how the function implemented using the tools. Refer to figure 2, there are five Application programming interface (API) surround with workflow engine. The API is functional as interact and communicate between clients and workflow engine. Process definition: This is the process which will involved the workflow and allocated the resources example: system and people to execute the jobs. Client interface: This interface which the workflows will involved by software. Involved applications: This interface involved the workflow software like example: document management system, email system and document imaging system. External workflow services: This interface is deal with external workflow of the company or others companies. Administration and monitoring : This interface is functional as admin and monitor of all the workflow being executed. These five interface become the minimum standards for workflow system. It is very important to having system architecture to cope with existing environment and implemented it with others business related companies. (Kà ¤mpf and Großmann. 2006). 2.3.3 Types of workflows There are two types of workflows. Sequential workflow Sequential workflow style is execute set of process and activities sequentially or one followed by another. There are no return to previous flow if required. For example figure 3. http://i.msdn.microsoft.com/Ee231606.SP_Sequential(en-us,VS.100).png Figure 3 State machine workflow State machine workflow is combine of state, actions and others. These workflow usually complex and may return to previous flow if required. For example figure 4. State Machine Workflow Figure 4 (Msdn, 2010). 2.4 Advantages of Workflow Management System 2.4.1 Improve productivity There are many advantages of using the workflow management system. One of the advantages is it can help the organization to improve their productivity. Before it, the workers will spend a lot of times on doing the manual tasks for example to approve the clients changes on their details on paper works. This will waste lot of man power, times, resources and money on this dummy works. Furthermore, it will slow down the organization performance and risk the development of it. With the system, every things can doing on split of eyes. When there are changes of the details, staffs can send e-mails to their supervisor to approve the changes rather than paper work. 2.4.2 Visibility It also important to let manager having visibility on the business workflow. For manager, it is responsible for them to understand the whole workflow of department. If there are any happen with business critical processes, he will identified it and take appropriate steps to overcome it. For example, in the shipment department, there are lot of wrong shipment to destination. Manager may easily identified which flow are causes the mistakes. 2.4.3 Faster change to business reaction Besides that, it allows the organization to having faster business reaction to change. In the organization, top management may change organization business flows or business process reengineering to react to market changes. For manager, they may quickly change it through process modification on workflow system. Example, if customers pay the bills for abnormal transaction by using credit card, operator of credit card company may call the card owner to verified the transaction to avoid fraud. 2.4.4 Accountability For manger, it can improve accountability skills. Manager have overview and understanding of process, it can help him to allocate resources and man power to which processes are more necessary. This may reduce wasteful of resources on focus to other major process. Example, manager may identify administration department need lesser staffs compare to accounting department. So, he can switch some staffs to accounting department to improved productivity rather waste resources or terminate the staffs. 3. Electronic document management system 3.1 History From year 1980s, there are lot of IT people began to develop a system to manage the paper-based document and images of a company to reduce the yearly huge expenses on paper. Later, they created the first system called electronic document management (EDM) system to managed those document that created by computers. It also known as document imaging systems, because the main function were capture, storage, and retrieve the file. It also help the organization to capture faxes and save document as images. (Wikipedia. 2010). 3.2 Definition Electronic document management system is a kind of computer software to organized and manage electronic document. For example, word processing documents, image, spreadsheets and others. The document which users can change and store the document in electronic form or images for the purpose of retrieving, sharing, distributing, version control, workflow management. Document management system will require scanner to convert the document to digital form for storing. (Wikipedia. 2010). 3.3 Function of electronic document management system In electronic document management system, there are few major function to manage the document: Data recording and storage both in document and out document are required to tagged with date and time of last accessed. Capturing documents when scanner scan the images of hard copy document into electronic formats, it will stored it in database for easy storage and flexible retrieving the document. Document retrieval the system make the document retrieve more easily by clicking some button rather than search it in cabinet. Create indexes system can help to organize document by create indexes to uniquely identified each group of document and save time for searching. Version control system able to keep track multiple version of same document to manage and store multiple version of data to system. (Marc, B. 2010). (Bestpricecomputers. 2010). 3.3 Advantages of Electronic Document Management System 3.3.1 Reduced storage spaces The storage document in an organization always is an big issues for them. If the organization which exist more than 10 years, it will be a huge amount of documentary in organization. By scanning those documents and store in DMS system can reduce a large amount of paper storage. Beside of that, it also help the organization to reduce cost of storage to store documents. 3.3.2 Prevent lost files In an organization, it is very common that a document can lost it easily without having a well organized storage. Lost of documents is an loss for an organization and need time to replace it. Furthermore, hardcopy of records which retrieved from storage, may lead to loss because others may getting the same file. With DMS, the image of the document will store in the server and can view by others without losing and damaged. 3.3.3 Improved security DMS can provide a better security, flexible to access on document level based on the level of groups and people. Documents that store in DMS are required authentication and access code to view and modify the documents, it also eliminate the unauthorized people to access confidential documents. Example, in an organization, staffs are need password and username to access groups of document instead of easily get the document stores in cabinet without any authorization checking. Furthermore, DMS can provide audit function of who, when and which documents being access by staffs. 3.3.4 Controlled and improved distribution Documents imaging are easily distribute to colleagues and staffs by e-mail and web instead of photocopy to share. This provide cost saving by reducing organizations paper document for example printing and postage which with hard copy documents. 3.3.5 Flexible retrieval Keeping the softcopy version of documents in DMS system is better against hardcopy document. It is because that, it more fast to retrieve the records compare to searching in cabinet to get the records. Staffs can spend lesser time to get the records in their own table without leaving. 3.3.6 Version control Documents are stored in network can be changed by users without changing history. Document management system require documents to be checked out first for change and check in to save changes into database. It can view the entire history of documents of who and when to modified the documents. 3.3.7 Reduced costs When implemented the system, we can reduced a lot of unnecessary paper works cost on it especially for TAR college with huge amount of students intake and lot of lecturers. (Content Manager. 2008). 3.3 Critical evaluation In TAR college, it is emergent need for the document management system (DMS). The reason is to reduced the documents spaces. For TAR college which are big education institute with approximated 6000 people intake every year, there must be a huge amount of studentss details and documents of it. The space need to stored, managed and categories these students will be a headache problems for staffs. Beside that, lecturer may have document sharing as discussion on new course development. Loss of documents will be an norms for bad practices on document management. In TAR college, with large amount of document and lecturer works. It will easily loss their document if impropriate managed and storing due to . Those information are valuable to them and time consuming to replace it. Example, record of students or evaluation on course developed. Beside that, with DMS, the documents and information are securely been stored in it. Someone is needed password to access certain documents. This to prevent unauthorized staff and lecturer to access some highly confidential and students details or financial documents to protect privacy and prevent disclosure those information to third party. Example, normal staffs may not easily get the financial report from finance department. The results from discussion of course developed is essential to keep its version control. This is to make sure the workflow of it is well managed under DMS. Without it, it is easily mess up with older version results and produced inaccurate discussion and results based on old version discussion. Other than that, with DMS, staff and lecturer may easily to retrieve the information by clicking some button rather than physically go to other department to retrieve it from cabinet. Example, lecturer reference some course details from course development department. In Extending Document Management Systems with User-Specific ActiveProperties journal. The author stated out 4 problems of traditional document management system. That is file documents, manage document, locate documents and share documents. -For file documents: it reflects that particular documents are relevant to multiple activities and department. Example, travel plans are relate to budget decision and scheduling with the department of accounting and HR. -For manage file: the administrative function of documents according to demands of user needs. -For locate documents: documents may filed to one criterion but retrieved according to another, because cannot define the cross-cutting set of categorization to group of documents. -For share documents: organization may not know that particular document is relevant to people or need of their groups of people. Groupware History Groupware was introduced by a people Richman and Slovak in 1980. They say that Like an electronic sinew that binds teams together, the new  groupware  aims to place the computer squarely in the middle of communications among managers, technicians, and anyone else who interacts in groups, revolutionizing the way they work.(8) In 1990s, the company who used the groupware are Boeing and IBM. They use it as meeting tools to control the projects. Then lotus notes act as major software of groupware. It allow group of people to work together in internet in early stage. Slowly, groupware was fully integrate in web site and come out Web 2.0 for the purpose of host a corporate network. The functionalities include document sharing, instant messaging, web conferencing with others. (Wikipedia. 2009) Definition Groupware also called as collaborative software. The purpose of groupware is to change the documents and other materials to be shared effectively in team collaboration. Before that, we have to understand the human interaction is a must to create software to meet their needs. There are three ways of human interact: conversations, transactions and collaborations. Conversational interactions: It is the information sharing between two or more people, the purpose is to build the relationship among them. Communication technology are instant messaging, E-mail and others. Transactional interaction: It is to exchange transaction entities, means to alter relationship between participants. One participant exchange money for services and products to become a customer. It effectively in transaction systems for manage records for persistent change. Collaborative interaction: participants relationship is to alter a collaborative entity. Example, to achieve a common goal. So, true collaboration technology is to bring many people to achieve a common output. To get the many effort into a managed environment is collaboration technology. We can divided groupware into 4 area: Knowledge management tools Knowledge creation tools Information sharing tools Collaborative project management tools (Wikipedia. 2009) Collaborative project management Collaborative project management tools (CPMT) is described all detailed of collaboration and management of project and its related knowledge areas. Beside that, it also known as business related goals which used for project management. Example of collaborative project management tools: Collaborative project management tools Instant messaging Telephony Videoconferencing Web conferencing E-mail Web publishing Revision control Document versioning Document sharing Levels of groupware Groupware can be divided in 3 categories based on level of collaboration: communication tools, conferencing tools and collaborative tools. Communication: It is unstructured way to exchange information. For example, instant message discussion and phone chatting. Conferencing: Interactive work toward a goal. For example brainstorming from group of people and also voting. Collaborative: complex interdependent work toward a goal. Everyone was contribute their effort and work differently on achieving a goal. Example, everyone in an organization from different department are work hard in their own position to contribute their effort in organization to generate more profits. (Wikipedia. 2009) Communication tools Communication tools is use to communicate with people and sharing information by messages or documents. Example: E-mail Revision control Web publishing (Wikipedia. 2009) Conferencing tools Conferencing tools is use to sharing information in more interesting and responsive way. Example: Forums an internet discussion spaces to manage messages from other people. Online chat a real-time message convertion and discussion. Example MSN. Videoconferencing networked PCs conference with video and audio. Instant messaging. (Wikipedia. 2009) Collaborative tools Collaborative tools is use to manage group activities. Example Workflow systems management of tasks and documents in business process. Project management system it is a system to schedule and tasks allocated to people the steps in projects to be completed. Knowledge management system it is a system for an organization to create, store and distribute good practices and experience. (Wikipedia. 2009) Advantages of groupware Increase efficiency Groupware is to provide a centralized access point to access information. Group members have to access their related information for their tasks in their group. It can remove redundant work, required less time to search data, and spend more time in tasks. (Web conferencing zone. 2005). Define and enforce process With groupware, we can know how the information is flows. All the documentation are kept on the person who make changes. This will help group members to ensure them to perform their jobs and satisfied with their contribution to the projects. (Web conferencing zone. 2005). Provide structure Thought groupware, it can show the group members of how the tasks been allocated, what the goals of projects, expectation from them. Group members are know that their task and roles of projects. Other than that is to provide project management with scheduling and tracking facilities. (Web conferencing zone. 2005). Critical evaluation Conclusion In conclusion, workflow management system can help us to manage the task flow to be more easily and transparent. It can identified the business process, the task allocated to particular members and goal of the projects. Beside of that, it need electronic document management system to control the task and documentation of members to work more effectively and efficiency. Lastly, groupware will help group members to communicate more easily and effectively on discussion and reporting the methods to carry their tasks. In conclusion, I will combined these technology to create a system to let lecturer can have a better environment on discuss and developed a new course structure.

The Importance of Romanticism in Literature Essay -- Literature Essays

The Importance of Romanticism in Literature In Wordsworth’s â€Å"The World is Too Much With Us† can be seen all the classic signs of the Romantic movement of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century well embodied, complete with a near-worship of nature (â€Å"Little we see in Nature that is ours†¦for this, for everything, we are out of tune†) that was perhaps an understandable reaction to not only the classicism of the prior era, but the sociopolitical realities of the day (such as the French Revolution), a sort of intellectualized version of the hippie movement of 1960s America. Clearly, Wordsworth here is taking a typically Romantic view of the social order and what remained acceptable norms even in religious view (â€Å"I’d rather be a Pagan†¦so might I†¦have glimpses that would make me less forlorn†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ), and a kind of individual, internal, take on the acquisition of truth that echoed the ultra-romanticism of Wordsworth’s fellow Briton, William Blake, in his insistence that he create his own â€Å"systems† lest he â€Å"be ruled by another man’s.† Much of these ideas would appeal, at least in their simplest forms, to much of modern consciousness, rebelling as it does not only against conformity and convention, but the apparent subjugation of the individual by the increasingly dizzying swirl of corporate culture and technological globalization. It is interesting to read Emily Dickinson’s take, as it were, on Romanticism from some five decades after Wordsworth. Dickinson wrote in the wake of the industrial revolution (or at least its initial stages) and fell only somewhat short of Thoreau’s radical view of the railroad as emblematic of technology devouring the human person (â€Å"We do not ride upon the railroad,† Thoreau famously asserted, â€Å"but t... ...hey seen as an outgrowth of Divine effort or merely an existent truth defiant of explanation. In other words, Romantic ideals may manifest themselves where Romanticism is not thought to be hiding in part because, quite simply, many Romantic ideals are common to human existence. The same can be said, of course, of the ideals of non-Romantic movements, and indeed this is so. Readers must be cautious to avoid rejecting the proverbial baby along with the bathwater in the common tendency to reject some truths simply because they are stated by those one considers an ideological enemy. In light of the above, Romanticism undoubtedly speaks to many readers today – as it did in its various reappearances in history – because it offers one side of a balanced coin which considers the individual as well as the collective, and the wonder of nature as well as the reason of man. The Importance of Romanticism in Literature Essay -- Literature Essays The Importance of Romanticism in Literature In Wordsworth’s â€Å"The World is Too Much With Us† can be seen all the classic signs of the Romantic movement of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century well embodied, complete with a near-worship of nature (â€Å"Little we see in Nature that is ours†¦for this, for everything, we are out of tune†) that was perhaps an understandable reaction to not only the classicism of the prior era, but the sociopolitical realities of the day (such as the French Revolution), a sort of intellectualized version of the hippie movement of 1960s America. Clearly, Wordsworth here is taking a typically Romantic view of the social order and what remained acceptable norms even in religious view (â€Å"I’d rather be a Pagan†¦so might I†¦have glimpses that would make me less forlorn†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ), and a kind of individual, internal, take on the acquisition of truth that echoed the ultra-romanticism of Wordsworth’s fellow Briton, William Blake, in his insistence that he create his own â€Å"systems† lest he â€Å"be ruled by another man’s.† Much of these ideas would appeal, at least in their simplest forms, to much of modern consciousness, rebelling as it does not only against conformity and convention, but the apparent subjugation of the individual by the increasingly dizzying swirl of corporate culture and technological globalization. It is interesting to read Emily Dickinson’s take, as it were, on Romanticism from some five decades after Wordsworth. Dickinson wrote in the wake of the industrial revolution (or at least its initial stages) and fell only somewhat short of Thoreau’s radical view of the railroad as emblematic of technology devouring the human person (â€Å"We do not ride upon the railroad,† Thoreau famously asserted, â€Å"but t... ...hey seen as an outgrowth of Divine effort or merely an existent truth defiant of explanation. In other words, Romantic ideals may manifest themselves where Romanticism is not thought to be hiding in part because, quite simply, many Romantic ideals are common to human existence. The same can be said, of course, of the ideals of non-Romantic movements, and indeed this is so. Readers must be cautious to avoid rejecting the proverbial baby along with the bathwater in the common tendency to reject some truths simply because they are stated by those one considers an ideological enemy. In light of the above, Romanticism undoubtedly speaks to many readers today – as it did in its various reappearances in history – because it offers one side of a balanced coin which considers the individual as well as the collective, and the wonder of nature as well as the reason of man.

Kssr Sains

TAJUK 1| Isu-isu dalam Pendidikan Sains| SINOPSIS Topik ini membincangkan beberapa isu-isu dalam pendidikan sains. Isu-isu ini berkaitan dengan matlamat pendidikan sains, kandungan pendidikan sains, pengajaran sains dan literasi saintifik. HASIL PEMBELAJARAN 1. Mengenal pasti dan membincangkan isu-isu dalam pendidikan sains. 2. Analisis kesan-kesan isu-isu yang berkaitan dengan pendidikan sains dalam pengajaran sains di sekolah-sekolah rendah. Kerangka Tajuk-tajuk Rajah 1. 0 Kerangka tajuk ISI KANDUNGAN 1. Isu- isu Kurikulum Sains Preparing a national science curriculum that will help school students develop their scientific competencies alongside their acquisition of science knowledge requires attention to four issues. 1. Selection of science content (knowledge, skill, understanding and values) There is a consistent criticism that many of the problems and issues in science education arise from the structure of science curricula which tend to be knowledge-heavy and alienating to a si gnificant number of students.A curriculum that covers an extensive range of science ideas hampers the efforts of even the best teachers who attempt to provide engaging science learning for their students. The effect of such knowledge-laden curricula is for teachers to treat science concepts in a superficial way as they attempt to cover what is expected in the curriculum. Rather than developing understanding, students therefore have a tendency to rely on memorisation when taking tests of their science learning. The challenge is to identify the science concepts that are important and can be realistically understood by students in the learning time available.One of the realities faced in science education is that scientific knowledge is rapidly increasing. While this is valuable for our society, it adds to the pressure on the science curriculum. There is a reluctance to replace the old with the new. Rather, there is a tendency to simply add the new science ideas to the traditional ones . Accompanying this desire to retain the traditional knowledge base is a feeling that understanding this content exemplifies intellectual rigor. Obviously such a situation is not sustainable.The consequence is that many students are losing interest in science. The question then needs to be asked: what is important in a science curriculum? This paper argues that developing science competencies is important, understanding the big ideas of science is important, exposure to a range of science experiences relevant to everyday life is important and understanding of the major concepts from the different sciences is important. It is also acknowledged that there is a core body of knowledge and understanding that is fundamental to the understanding of major ideas.The paper also proposes that it is possible to provide flexibility and choice about the content of local science curriculum. The factors that influence this choice include context, local science learning opportunities, historical per spectives, contemporary and local issues and available learning resources. In managing this choice, there is a need to be conscious of the potential danger of repetition of knowledge through a student’s school life and ensure repetition is minimised and that a balanced science curriculum is provided for every student.Finally, when selecting content for a national science curriculum it is important to determine how much time can reasonably and realistically be allocated to science and within this time constraint what is a reasonable range of science concepts and skills for learning in primary and secondary school. 2. Relevance of science learning a curriculum is more likely to provide a basis for the development of scientific competencies if it is relevant to individual students, perceived to have personal value, or is presented in a context to which students can readily relate.Instead of simply emphasising what has been described as ‘canonical science concepts’, there is a need to provide a meaningful context to which students can relate (Aikenhead 2006). Furthermore, students will be better placed to understand the concepts if they can be applied to everyday experiences. To provide both context and opportunities for application takes time. To increase the relevance of science to students there is a strong case to include more contemporary (and possibly controversial) issues in the science curriculum.In doing so, it is important to note that the complexity of some scientific issues means that they do not have clear-cut solutions. Often, the relevant science knowledge is limited or incomplete so that the questions can only be addressed in terms of what may be possible or probable rather than the certainty of what will happen. Even when the risks inherent in making a particular decision are assessable by science, the cultural or social aspects also need to be taken into consideration.The school science curriculum should provide opportunities to explore these complex issues to enable students to understand that the application of science and technology to the real world is often concerned with risk and debate (Rennie 2006). Science knowledge can be applied to solve problems concerning human needs and wants. Every application of science has an impact on our environment. For this reason, one needs to appreciate that decisions concerning science applications involve constraints, consequences and risks. Such decision-making is not value-free.In developing science competencies, students need to appreciate the influence of particular values in attempting to balance the issues of constraints, consequences and risk. While many students perceive school science as difficult, the inclusion of complex issues should not be avoided on the basis that there is a potential for making science seem even more difficult. The answer is not to exclude contemporary issues, but rather to use them to promote a more sophisticated understanding of the nature of science and scientific knowledge.It is important to highlight the implications of a science curriculum that has personal value and relevance to students. This means that the curriculum cannot be a ‘one size fits all’, but rather a curriculum that is differentiated so that students can engage with content that is meaningful and satisfying and provides the opportunity for conceptual depth. In this respect the science curriculum should be built upon knowledge of how students learn, have demonstrated relevance to tudents’ everyday world, and be implemented using teaching and learning approaches that involve students in inquiry and activity. Within the flexibility of a science curriculum that caters for a broad cohort of students and a range of delivery contexts, there is a need to define what it is that students should know in each stage of schooling. In this way, students can build their science inquiry skills based on an understanding of the major ide as that underpin our scientific endeavour. 3.General capabilities and science education There is an argument, based on research within science education, that curriculum needs to achieve a better balance between the traditional knowledge-focused science and a more humanistic science curriculum that prepares students for richer understanding and use of science in their everyday world (Fensham, 2006). Beyond the science discipline area there is also pressure in some Australian jurisdictions to develop a broader general school curriculum that embraces the view of having knowledge and skills important for future personal, social and economic life.While there is much value in such futuristic frameworks, there is the danger that the value of scientific understanding may be diminished. Unless the details of the general capabilities refer specifically to science content, the importance of science may be overlooked and the curriculum time devoted to it decrease. The science curriculum can re adily provide opportunities to develop these general capabilities. Such general capabilities as thinking strategies, decision-making approaches, communication, use of information and communication technology (ICT), team work and problem solving are all important dimensions of science learning.There is an increasing number of teachers who will require assistance to structure their teaching in ways that enable students to meld the general life capabilities with the understanding and skills needed to achieve scientific competencies. Such assistance will be found in the provision of quality, adaptable curriculum resources and sustained effective professional learning. 4. Assessment When a curriculum document is prepared there is an expectation that what is written will be what is taught and what is assessed. Unfortunately, there is sometimes a considerable gap between ntended curriculum, the taught curriculum and the assessed curriculum; what can be assessed often determines what is tau ght. This disconnect is a result of the different pressures and expectations in education system. An obvious goal in curriculum development is that the intended, taught and assessed dimensions of curriculum are in harmony. The importance of assessment in curriculum development is highlighted in the process referred to as ‘backward design’ in which one works through three stages from curriculum intent to assessment expectations to finally planning learning experiences and instruction (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005).This process reinforces the simple proposition that for a curriculum to be successfully implemented one should have a clear and realistic picture of how the curriculum will be assessed. Assessment should serve the purpose of learning. Classroom assessment, however, is often translated in action as testing. It is unfortunate that the summative end-of-topic tests seem to dominate as the main tool of assessment. Senior secondary science assessment related to university entrance has long reinforced a content-based summative approach to assessment in secondary schools.To improve the quality of science learning there is a need to introduce more diagnostic and formative assessment practices. These assessment tools help teachers to understand what students know and do not know and hence plan relevant learning experiences that will be beneficial. Summative testing does have an important role to play in monitoring achievement standards and for accountability and certification purposes, but formative assessment is more useful in promoting learning.Assessment should enable the provision of detailed diagnostic information to students. It should show what they know, understand and can demonstrate. It should also show what they need to do to improve. It should be noted that the important science learning aspects concerning attitudes and skills as outlined in the paper cannot be readily assessed by pencil and paper tests. For that reason, it is important to e mphasise the need for a variety of assessment approaches. While assessment is important, it should not dominate the learning process.Structure of the curriculum There is value in differentiating the curriculum into various parts that are relevant to the needs of the students and the school structure (Fensham, 1994). 5. In regard to the school structure, the nature of the teacher’s expertise becomes a factor to consider. For early childhood teachers, their expertise lies in the understanding of how children learn. Secondary science teachers have a rich understanding of science while senior secondary teachers have expertise in a particular discipline of science. Each part would have a different curriculum focus.The four parts are: †¢ early childhood †¢ primary †¢ junior secondary †¢ senior secondary. Developing scientific competencies takes time and the science curriculum should reflect the kinds of science activities, experiences and content appropriate for students of different age levels. In sum, early science experiences should relate to self awareness and the natural world. During the primary years, the science curriculum should develop the skills of investigation, using experiences which provide opportunities to practice language literacy and numeracy.In secondary school, some differentiation of the sub-disciplines of science may be appropriate, but as local and community issues are interdisciplinary, an integrated science may be the best approach. Senior secondary science curricula should be differentiated, to provide for students who wish to pursue career-related science specializations, as well those who prefer a more general, integrated science for citizenship. Early Childhood Curriculum focus: awareness of self and the local natural world. Young children have an intrinsic curiosity about their immediate world. They have a desire to explore and investigate the things around them.Purposeful play is an important feature of thei r investigations. Observation is an important skill to be developed at this time, using all the senses in a dynamic way. Observation also leads into the idea of order that involves comparing, sorting and describing. 2. PrimaryCurriculum focus: recognising questions that can be investigated scientifically and investigating them. During the primary years students should have the opportunity to develop ideas about science that relate to their life and living. A broad range of topics is suitable including weather, sound, light, plants, animals, the night sky, materials, soil, water and movement.Within these topics the science ideas of order, change, patterns and systems should be developed. In the early years of primary school, students will tend to use a trial and error approach to their science investigations. As they progress through their primary years, the expectation is that they will begin to work in a more systematic way. The notion of a ‘fair test’ and the idea of variables will be developed, as well as other forms of science inquiry. The importance of measurement will also be fostered. 3. Junior secondaryCurriculum focus: explaining phenomena involving science and its applications.During these years, the students will cover topics associated with each of the sciences: earth and space science, life science and physical science. Within these topics it is expected that aspects associated with science for living, scienceinquiry and contemporary science would be integrated in the fields of science. While integration is the more probable approach, it is possible that topics may be developed directly from each one of these themes. For example, there may be value in providing a science unit on an open science investigation in which students conduct a study on an area of their choosing.While there may be specific topics on contemporary science aspects and issues,teachers and curriculum resources should strive to include the recent science research in a particular area. It is this recent research that motivates and excites students. In determining what topics students should study from the broad range of possibilities, it is important to exercise restraint and to avoid overcrowding the curriculum and providing space for the development of students’ science competencies alongside their knowledge and understanding of science content.Topics could include states of matter, substances and reactions, energy forms, forces and motion, the human body, diversity of life, ecosystems, the changing earth and our place in space. The big science ideas of energy, sustainability, equilibrium and interdependence should lead to the ideas of form and function that result in a deeper appreciation of evidence, models and theories. There are some students ready to begin a more specialised program science in junior secondary and differentiation as early as Year 9 may need to be considered to extend and engage these students’ interest and skills in science. . Senior Secondary. There should be at least three common courses across the country: physics, chemistry and biology. There could also be one broader-based course that provides for students wanting only one science course at the senior secondary level. It could have an emphasis on applications. The integrating themes of science for life, scientific inquiry and contemporary science should be embedded into all these courses where realistically possible. Other specialised courses could also be provided. Existing courses in the states and territories are among the possibilities available.National adoption would improve the resources to support the individual courses. (Sumber: National Curriculum Board (2008). National Science Curriculum: Initial advice. Retrieved 10 Sept. 2009 from www. acara. edu. au/verve/_†¦ /Science_Initial_Advice_Paper. pdf) | Latihan| 1. Baca kandungan diatas. 2. Nyatakan isu-isu dalam pendidikan sains yang ditemui dalam kandungan di atas. 3. Bincang dan tuliskan refleksi sebanyak dua halaman tentang kesan daripada isu-isu pengajaran sains rendah. | | Membuat Nota| Mengumpul maklumat mengenai literasi sains dan hubungannya dengan pendidikan sains dari buku atau internet.Membina peta minda untuk menyatakan maklumat yang anda telah berkumpul. | . . Senarai Semak Jawab ujian di bawah bagi menguji tahap literasi saintifik anda. Test of Scientific Literacy Answer each question with ‘true' if what the sentence most normally means is typically true and ‘false' if it is typically false. 1. | Scientists usually expect an experiment to turn out a certain way. | | 2. | Science only produces tentative conclusions that can change. | | 3. | Science has one uniform way of conducting research called â€Å"the scientific method. | | 4| Scientific theories are explanations and not facts. | | 5. | When being scientific one must have faith only in what is justified by empirical evidence. | | 6. | Science is just about the fa cts, not human interpretations of them. | | 7. | To be scientific one must conduct experiments. | | 8. | Scientific theories only change when new information becomes available. | | 9. | Scientists manipulate their experiments to produce particular results. | | 10. | Science proves facts true in a way that is definitive and final. | | 11. An experiment can prove a theory true. | | 12. | Science is partly based on beliefs, assumptions, and the nonobservable. | | 13. | Imagination and creativity are used in all stages of scientific investigations. | | 14. | Scientific theories are just ideas about how something works. | | 15. | A scientific law is a theory that has been extensively and thoroughly confirmed. | | 16. | Scientists’ education, background, opinions, disciplinary focus, and basic guiding assumptions and philosophies influence their perception and interpretation of the available data. | 17. | A scientific law will not change because it has been proven true. | | 18. | A n accepted scientific theory is an hypothesis that has been confirmed by considerable evidence and has endured all attempts to disprove it. | | 19. | A scientific law describes relationships among observable phenomena but does not explain them. | | 20. | Science relies on deduction (x entails y) more than induction (x implies y). | | 21. | Scientists invent explanations, models or theoretical entities. | | 22. | Scientists construct theories to guide further research. | 23. | Scientists accept the existence of theoretical entities that have never been directly observed. | | 24. | Scientific laws are absolute or certain. | | Jawapan 1. T|   9. T | 17. F |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 0 wrong = A+| 2. T | 10. F | 18. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 1 wrong = A| 3. F  | 11. F | 19. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 2 wrong = A-| 4. T | 12. T | 20. F |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 3 wrong = B+| 5. T | 13. T | 21. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 4 wrong = B| 6. F | 14. F | 22. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 5 wrong = B-| 7. F | 15. F | 23. T |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 6 wrong = C | 8. F | 16. T | 24. F |   Ã‚  Ã‚  | 7 wrong = D| | | | | 8 or more wrong = F| RujukanFleer, M. , & Hardy. T. (2001). Science for Children: Developing a Personal Approach to Teaching. (2nd Edition). Sydney: Prentice Hall. Pg 146 – 147) National Curriculum Board (2008). National Science Curriculum: Initial advice. Retrieved on10 Sept. 2009 from :www. acara. edu. au/verve/_†¦ /Science_Initial_Advice_Paper. pdf Hazen, R. M. (2002). What is scientific literacy? Retrieved on 10 Sept. 2009 from : http://www. gmu. edu/robinson/hazen. htm | Tamat Topik 1| TAJUK 2| Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia | SINOPSISTopik ini menggariskansejarah perkembangankurikulumsainssekolah rendahdi Malaysia. Kurikulum di Malaysia telah melaluibeberapaperubahandariKajianAlam Semulajadi, Projek Khas, Alam dan ManusiadanSainsKBSRsekarang HASIL PEMBELAJARAN 1. Menyatakan perubahan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah di Malaysia. 2. Menyatakan rasional untuk perubahan dalam kurikulum sains s ekolah rendah di Malaysia. 3. Membandingbezakan kekuatan dan kelemahan setiap kurikulum sains sekolah rendah yang telah diperkenalkan di Malaysia. Kerangka Tajuk Rajah 2 : Kerangka Tajuk-TajukISI KANDUNGAN 2. 0Sains Sekolah Rendah: Mengimbas kembali Dalam sejarah perkembangan pendidikan sains sekolah rendah di Malaysia, ia boleh disimpulkan bahawa perubahan kurikulum adalah satu inovasi (Kementerian Pelajaran dan UNESCO, 1988; SEAMEO-RECSAM, 1983; SEAMEO-RECSAM, 1973). Perubahan ini juga merupakan multidimensi dalam erti kata lain ia melibatkan sekurang-kurangnya tiga dimensi dalam pelaksanaannya (Fullan, 1991). Komponen-komponennya adalah seperti berikut: (i)penggunaan bahan-bahan kurikulum yang disemak semulaatau baharu atau berteknologi; ii)penggunaan pendekatan baharu; (iii)pengubahsuaian kepercayaan, contohnya, andaian pedagogi dan teori berkenaan polisi baharu atau inovasi. Di Malaysia, semua perubahan kurikulum yang berlaku akan dilaksanakan oleh Kementerian Pendidikan dan ak an disebarkan kepada semua sekolah-sekolah di negara ini. 2. 1Kajian Alam Semulajadi Pada akhir abad kesembilan belas hingga pertengahan abad kedua puluh, sains diajar di sekolah rendah sebagai Kajian Alam Semulajadi, melibatkan pengetahuan tentang fakta-fakta dan hukum-hukum alam semulajadi sebagai asas penyiasatan saintifik.This approach had the advantage that students were encouraged to learn through careful observation and classification, but it ignored much of the natural environment that had an impact on students’ lives(Keeves and Aikenhead, 1995). Pengajaran sains di peringkat sekolah rendah telah dilaksanakan dalam semua bidang (botani, biologi, sains bumi, kimia dan fizik) secara beransur-ansur dan dihubungkaitkan dengan persekitaran dan pengalaman seharian murid. 2. 2Projek Khas KajianAlam Semulajadi telahdigantikan dengansukatan pelajaranSainsRendahpada tahun 1965.Inovasiini telah diadaptasikandariNuffield Junior Science project,UK (1964),tetapidisesuaikandengan ke perluantempatan. Kurikulumberasaskan subjek, di manatumpuan adalahpadapenguasaanpengetahuan saintifikdan bukannyaciri-cirimurid. Kebanyakanguru-gurusainsdisekolah rendah, terutamanyadi kawasan luar bandar mempunyai latar belakangpendidikan yang rendah (terdiri darigredenamhinggasembilaniaituhanya enamhinggasembilan tahunpersekolahanasas) tetapijuga telahmenerima latihanprofesionalyangtidak mencukupidalammetodologisains dan kandungan dalam mata pelajaranitusendiri.Mereka jugadilatih sebagai guru untukmengajarsemuamata pelajaransekolahrendah. Banyakamalan dalam bilik darjahberpusatkanbuku teks danpenghafalannota. Pencapaian prestasi murid-murid didapati lemah di sekolah-sekolah rendah luar bandar, terutamanya dalam bidang sains, maka Kementerian Pelajaran telah memperkenalkan Projek Sains Rendah Khas (Projek Khas) pada tahun 1968. Projek ini menggunakan pendekatan baharu untuk pengajaran sains bagi sukatan pelajaran yang sedia ada.Rasional memperkenalkan pendekatan pengajaran yang bah aru dan bukannya perubahan kurikulum adalah kerana Kementerian Pelajaran mendapati bahawa guru-guru sudah biasa dengan sukatan pelajaran yang sedia ada. Langkah ini telah mengurangkan trauma guru-guru terhadap perubahan kurikulum. Kurikulum telah diambil daripada Council Science 5 – 13 project, UK(1967) dan projek-projek sains yang lain di Amerika Syarikat, seperti Science- A Process Approach (1967), yang telah dilaksanakan pada masa itu, tetapi disesuaikan dengan keperluan tempatan.Ia menekankan pengajaran berpusatkan murid, berorientasikan aktiviti, dan pembelajaran penemuan melalui penggunaan buku kerja. Ia juga menyediakan perkhidmatan sokongan guru yang berterusan dalam melaksanakan sukatan pelajaranyang sedia ada, terutamanya di kawasan luar bandar. Buku Panduan guru, buku kerja dan bahan-bahan yang digunakan adalah berorientasikan penyiasatan telah dihasilkan untuk Darjah Satu ke Darjah Enam. Ketua Pengarah Pelajaran pada masa itu, Haji Hamdan bin Sheikh Tahir, menulis dalam halaman pengenalan semua buku panduan, Objective of this Special Project is to equip teachers with new teaching methodology in the hope of generating pupils who will be able to experiment and think and really know all the concepts that will be taught by the teacher. All the activities suggested in the guide-book will reduce the pupils’ reliance on rote learning and encourage them to gain experiences in a concept that is taught. It is hoped that pupils will be attracted to science not only in the primary schools but also in the secondary schools. † (Standard One Science Guide-book, 1971)Pada tahun 1970, satu pelan tindakan telah disediakan bertujuan untuk menentukan tarikh bagi melengkapkan setiap fasa dalam projek khas ini. Pensyarah-pensyarah maktab latihan guru dan guru-guru sekolah sains rendah telah dihantar berkursus di luar negara untuk mendapatkan pengalaman terus berkenaan model kurikulum dan bahan-bahan yang digunakan di sana dan membuat penyesuaian untu k keperluan tempatan. Apabila kembali ke tanahair, mereka dipinjamkan ke Pusat Sains, kini Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum (CDC) untuk menulis dan menyediakan buku panduan guru.Penulisan buku panduan mengikuti pola umum. Pertama, sukatan pelajaran standard yang diberikan telah dikaji semula dan dibincang bersama semua kakitangan yang terlibat dalam pendidikan sains seperti pensyarah universiti, pelatih guru, pemeriksa sekolah, pembangun kurikulum dan guru-guru. Topik-topik yang disusun semula(jikaperlu), dan jenis pengalaman yang boleh disediakan bagi murid-murid telah dikenal pasti. Seterusnya, pelbagai sumber telah diteliti untuk idea-idea yang relevan dan berguna.Kemudian, pendekatan umum yang digariskan telah dilaksanakan kajian rintis dan draf telah dikaji semula. Akhir sekali, buku panduanini telah siap ditulis, hasildari bengkel-bengkelpenulisan, pengumpulanbahan-bahankurikulumdariseluruhdunia, terutamanya bahan-bahan dariprojek-projekyangtelahdisokong olehpenyelidikan dankajian rintis yang dikendalikandalam situasibilik darjahsebenar. Malangnya, bahan-bahan yangdisimpantelahmusnah dalam kebakarandi Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum sekitarbulanApril, 1997.Beberapa sekolah-sekolah khas yang dikenali sebagai ‘pusat-pusat aktiviti' telah ditubuhkan untuk menampung penyebaran pengetahuan dan sumber untuk guru sekolah rendah di semua negeri. Guru-guru juga dilatih untuk menjadi juru latih utama bagi projel khas ini. Pada tahun 1970, empat puluh guru dari tiga puluh pusat-pusat ini telah dilatih khas di Kuala Lumpur. Guru-guru yang dilantik sebagai jurulatih, kemudian kembali ke sekolah-sekolah mereka masing-masing untuk melatih guru-guru yang mengajar Darjah Satu pada tahun 1971 untuk menggunakan panduan-buku dan lembaran kerja.Latihan ini diteruskan sehingga Darjah Enam. Oleh itu, juru latih utama dan guru-guru yang dilatih oleh mereka dalam kursus-kursus dalam perkhidmatan bukan sahaja dilatih, tetapi juga bertindak sebagai agen perubahan di sekolah-sekolah mereka dengan menyebarkan teknik-teknik yang diperoleh kepada guru-guru lain. Guru juga dimaklumkan tentang bahan-bahan pengajaran yang terkini dan maklum balas melalui edaran buletin yang dihasilkan oleh ‘pusat-pusat aktiviti'. Soal selidik menilai juga telah diberikan kepada guru-guru untuk memantau proses pelaksanaan dan membuat penambahbaikan berdasarkan maklum balas dan cadangan.Sepanjang projek ini, pensyarah maktab latihan guru juga terlibat dalam menyumbangkan kepakaran dan memberi latihan. Walau bagaimanapun, kekurangan tenaga pengajar terlatih menghalang aliran latihan dan pelaksanaan inovasi. Jadualperancanganyang tidak realistikgagalmengambil kiramasalahyang wujudsemasapelaksanaan. LaporanyangdibuatolehperwakilanMalaysiadiseminarSEAMEO-RECSAM pada tahun 1973bertajuk InovasiDalamKurikulumSainsSekolah Rendah DanMatematikDanMasalahPelaksanaanDi Malaysia. â€Å"The cost of curriculum development and implementation has got to be paid in time, not merely in cash and pe rsonnel.The ultimate price of having to untangle knots of mis-implementation as a result of hurried efforts will be more than whatever time is saved in pushing through an ill-planned ‘crash programme. † (Ali Razak, 1973; p. 218) Tiada jalan pintas untuk pembangunan kurikulum. Walaupun pada mulanya dirancang untuk melengkapkan penulisan buku panduan dalam tempoh dua tahun, tetapi akhirnya ia mengambil masa empat tahun. Proses pelaksanaan mengambil masa selama tujuh tahun. 2. 3Alam dan ManusiaPandangan lain mengenai pembangunan dan pelaksanaan ‘Projek Khas' telah diminta. Seorang yang bukan ahli sains, Tan Sri Profesor Awang Had Salleh (1983), yang merupakan Naib Canselor Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia pada masa itu, telah diminta memberi komen dan mengulas mengenai kurikulum sains sekolah rendah. It does provide for what might be called science literacy, but the orientation of the syllabus is towards mastery of scientific facts with little emphasis on social and rel igious meaning and significance of scientific discoveries.In other words, the syllabus is cognitively orientated with little attention given to the affective domain of educational objectives†¦ The orientation of the textbooks reinforces memory work and encourages very little, if at all, enquiry skills. .. The teaching of science subjects seems to be guided almost entirely by two powerful variables, namely, examination and textbooks. † (Awang Had Salleh, 1983; p. 63 – 64) Pandangan-pandangan ini mewujudkan beberapan persoalan : â€Å"What is science education for? What kind of pupils and society do we want to produce? Pandangan-pandangan ini menyebabkan perubahan radikal dalam pendidikan sains. Ia termasuk pendekatan pelbagai disiplin kepada pendidikan sains di mana motivasi untuk belajar dipermudahkan melalui kandungan sains kepada masalah sebenar alam sekitar. Penekanan diberi kepada kemahiran asas dalam pendidikan dan sains yang merupakan sebahagian daripada isi kandungan dalam mata pelajaran. Alam dan Manusia dalam KBSR. Kurikulum itu diperkenalkan pada tahun 1982 sebagai kajian rintis dan dilaksanakan sepenuhnya di semua sekolah rendah pada tahun 1983.Terdapat tiga komponen utama dalam mata pelajaran Alam dan Manusia iaitu: manusia, alam sekitar, dan interaksi manusia dan alam sekitar. Hubungan antara ketiga-tiga komponen itu ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 1. Bersepadu adalah perkataan yang utama dalam kurikulum sebagai kaedah untuk mengurangkan beban kandungan dan komponen-komponen disiplin dalam kurikulum yang terdahulu. Bersepadu dalam merentas kurikulum merangkumi sains, sejarah, geografi, sains kesihatan dan sivik. Terdapat juga kajian persekitaran untuk mewujudkan perkaitan sains sosial kepada dunia di luar bilik darjah.Kesepaduan hubungan antara manusia dan alam sekitar wujud melalui pendekatan siasatan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Di samping itu, terdapat kesepaduan antara bidang, di mana kandungan kurikulum dimasukkan ke dalam st ruktur konsep dimana terdapat tema konsep tertentu melalui proses inkuiri. Komunikasi Nilai Murni Sains sosial Sains Kesihatan Manusia Dunia Fizikal PendidikansiansKreativiti Hubungan Kemahiran Hidup alamsekitar Sains dan Teknologi Alam sekeliling Rajah 1 : Kerangka Alam dan Manusia (Source: Sufean Hussain et. al. , 1988). Mata pelajaran Alam dan Manusia menekankan tiga aspek yang luas. Pertama, untuk membangunkan pengetahuan murid mengenai manusia, alam sekitar, masyarakat dan interaksi antara mereka. Kedua, untuk meningkatkan kemahiran siasatan dan pemikiran dan penggunaan kemahiran ini dalam menyelesaikan masalah.Ketiga, untuk menerapkan nilai-nilai moral dan sikap murid-murid ke arah hidup yang harmoni dalam masyarakat majmuk (‘ Alam dan Manusia ‘ sukatan pelajaran, 1984). Terdapat lima tema utama dalam sukatan Alam dan Manusia. Ianya bertujuan supaya murid-murid dapat memahami, menghargai dan menyemai kasih sayang terhadap alam sekitar dan dengan itu, membangunkan cintakan negara. Tidak seperti Projek Khas yang diperkenalkan mulai Tahun Satu hingga Tahun Enam , Alam dan Manusia mula diperkenalkan di peringkat tahap dua iaitu dari Tahun Empat hingga Tahun Enam .Bagi melaksanakan kurikulum baru ini, diadakan kursus orientasi selama satu minggu kepada guru-guru sains . Selepas kursus itu, pihak Kementerian Pendidikan menganggap bahawa tugas mereka telah di pertanggungjawabkan kepada guru-guru dan tiada sebab untuk mereka mengatakan bahawa mereka tidak mempunyai pengetahuan yang mencukupi dan cara untuk mengajar subjek sains (Syed Zin, 1990). Batasan inovasi ini digambarkan oleh Syed Zin (1990) kajian ke atas pelaksanaannya di empat buah sekolah rendah di Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia.Antara batasan utama ialah kekurangan kompetensi guru-guru dalam mengintegrasikan kandungan subjek dan menggunakan pendekatan siasatan dalam pengajaran, kurangnya latihan dalam perkhidmatan dan sokongan profesional dari segi kakitangan dan kepakaran; kekangan fizikal se perti saiz kelas yang besar dan kemudahan yang tidak mencukupi; kurang jelas dalam reka bentuk inovasi; kekaburan dalam spesifikasi kurikulum dan skop dan jarak masa yang tidak mencukupi antara percubaan dan pelaksanaan inovasi bagi penambahbaikan yang dibuat.Akibat daripada inovasi, guru-guru telah dibebani dengan beban kerja tambahan, mengakibatkan guru menjadi cemas, hilang keyakinan dalam pengajaran, bergantung kepada buku teks dan tidak memaksimumkan penggunaan bahan-bahan kurikulum. Pelaksanaan kurikulum ini hanya berlaku sebahagian sahaja kerana guru-guru tidak menggunakan strategi pedagogi dan bahan-bahan yang dicadangkan. Guru-guru masih menekankan pemerolehan pengetahuan melalui fakta ,melalui kaedah deduktif berbanding dengan pendekatan siasatan. Tiada bukti bahawa ada perubahan dalam kepercayaan dan nilai guru ke arah inovasi.Alam dan Manusia , menekankan kurikulum humanistik iaitu kesepaduan disiplin, pendekatan siasatan dalam pembelajaran, meningkatkan kemahiran berfik ir dan penerapan nilai-nilai moral. Kajian Alam Semulajadi dan Sains Rendah adalah relevan dalam pendekatan pengajaran sains. Ia dapat menarik minat kanak-kanak dan memberi makna kepada kanak-kanak kerana berkaitan dengan pengalaman harian mereka. Ia disesuaikan dengan perkembangan kognitif mereka. Dalam Projek Khas, pendekatan baru dalam pengajaran melalui penggunaan buku panduan dan bahan-bahan yang sesuai untuk membangunkan kognitif kanak-kanak diberi tumpuan. 2. 4Sains KBSR.Sukatan pelajaran sains sekolah rendah dalam KBSR telah digubal berpandukan Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan dan prinsip-prinsip Rukunegara. KBSR adalah pendekatan bersepadu kepada pengetahuan, kemahiran dan nilai-nilai, pembangunan keseluruhan individu, peluang sama rata untuk pendidikan dan pendidikan sepanjang hayat. Tujuan utama KBSR adalah untuk menyediakan pendidikan asas untuk semua murid-murid dan memastikan perkembangan potensi murid-murid. secara menyeluruh. Perkembangan potensi murid-murid secara men yeluruh termasuk pembangunan intelek, rohani, fizikal dan emosi serta pembangunan diri dan memupuk nilai-nilai moral serta sikap.Sukatan pelajaran sains sekolah rendah direka untuk menampung prinsip-prinsip dan matlamat KBSR. (a)Matlamat dan Objektif KBSR Matlamat sukatan pelajaran sains sekolah rendah adalah untuk memupuk budaya sains dan teknologi dengan memberi tumpuan kepada pembangunan individu yang dapat menguasai pengetahuan dan kemahiran saintifik, memiliki nilai-nilai moral, dinamik dan progresif supaya ada tanggungjawab terhadap alam sekitar dan menghargai alam semula jadi. (Buku Panduan KBSR , Kementerian Pelajaran, 1993). Ini dapat dicapai dengan menyediakan peluang pembelajaran untuk murid-murid untuk belajar melalui pengalaman supaya mereka akan dapat; membangunkan kemahiran berfikir †¢ membangunkan kemahiran saintifik siasatan †¢ meningkatkan minat terhadap alam sekitar †¢ memahami diri dan persekitaran mereka melalui pemerolehan pengetahuan, pemahaman, fakta dan konsep †¢ menyelesaikan masalah dan membuat keputusan yang bertanggungjawab †¢ menangani sumbangan dan inovasi terkini dalam bidang sains dan teknologi †¢ mengamalkan nilai-nilai moral dan sikap saintifik dalam kehidupan seharian †¢ menghargai sumbangan sains dan teknologi kepada kehidupan yang lebih baik †¢ menghargai perintah dan penciptaan alam (Buku Panduan Sukatan Pelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah, 1993, ms. ) Menurut Lewis dan Potter (1970) objektif di atas boleh diklasifikasikan kepada tiga tujuan utama pendidikan sains. Mereka mempercayai melalui (1) latihan kemahiran proses inkuiri (2) pemerolehan fakta dan kefahaman konsep (3) sikap yang sesuai dan dihajati dapat dikembangkan. Ketiga-tiga tujuan ini dinyatakan dalam silabus PSS sebagai objektif pencapaian yang kemudian dibahagi kepada objektif umum dan khusus bergantung kepada perkembangan kognitif murid-murid. Objektif umum adalah kenyataan untuk menerangkan pencapaian objektif yang ingin dicapai dalam domain kognitif,afektif dan psikomoto.Objektif khusus adalah huraian kepada objektif umum dan dinyatakan dalam bentuk tingkahlaku yang boleh diukur. Objektif pencapaian diiringi dengan cadangan-cadangan untuk pengalaman belajar yang membolehkan guru merancang aktiviti-aktiviti yang bersesuaian bagi mencapai objektif. (b)Kemahiran proses dan kemahiran berfikir Penguasaan kemahiran proses, kemahiran manipulatif dan kemahiran berfikir adalah ditekankan dalam sukatan PSS (Primary School Science/ Sains Sekolah Rendah). Ketiga-tiga kemahiran tersebut adalah saling berkaitan dengan pemikiran secara kritikal,kreatif dan analitik .Kemahiran proses yang dikenalpasti adalah kemahiran memerhati, mengkelasan,mengukur dan menggunakan nombor,membuat inferen,membuat ramalan, berkomunikasi, mengenalpasti hubungan ruang dan masa,mengintepretasi data, mendefinasi secara operasi, mengawal dan memanipulasi pembolehubah,membina hipotesis dan mengeksperimen. Kemahiran manipulatif adalah kema hiran psikomotor seperti mengendali,membersih dan menyimpan alat radas sains, mengendali secara selamat spesimen hidup, dan melukis secara betul spesinen dan alat radas (PSS Syllabus Handbook, 1993 m. s. 3 – 5). (c)Sikap dan nilaiSukatan PSS juga untuk menyemai sikap saintifik dan nilai yang positif ke dalam diri murid seperti minat , sifat ingin tahu kepada dunia disekeliling, kejujuran, ketepatan dalam mereko, mengesahkan data,keluwesan dan keterbukaan minda,kesabaran,kerjasama,bertanggungjawab terhadap diri sendiri,orang lain dan alam sekitar,bersyukur kepada tuhan dan menghargai sumbangan sains dan teknologi perkembangan positif sikap dan nilai perlu menjadi matlamat akhir pendidikan. (PSS Syllabus Handbook, 1993, m. s. 3 – 6). Menurut Lewis dan Potter (1970), (d)Isi kandungan PSS dilihat sebagai suatu bidang ilmu dan juga sebagai pendekatan inkuiri.Sebagai suatu bidang ilmu,sains menyediakan suatu kerangka untuk murid-murid memahami persekitaran mereka melalui apl ikasi prinsip sains dalam kehidupan harian. Pendekatan inkuiri membolehkan murid melakukan penyiasatan pada dunia di sekeliling mereka. Ini akan menggalakkan muridmenjadi kreatif,berfikiran terbuka,toleransi ,mencintai dan menghargai alam sekitar. Prinsip kesepaduan dikekalkan dalam sukatan PSS sejajar dengan KBSR. Wujud kesepaduan yang merentasi matapelajaran lain seperti biologi,fizik dan kimia melalui penggunaan konsep dan proses sains. Pendekatan secara tema digunakan dalam mengolah isi kandungan .Pada tahap I sekolah rendah dalam Tahun 1, isi kandungan dibahagikan kepada dua bahagian: Bahagian A dan B . Pada Tahap II sekolah rendah, tema dibina mengenai manusia dan penerokaan persekitaran. Lima bidang penyiasatan adalah: 0 Alam Hidupan 1 Alam Fizikal 2 Alam Bahan 3 Bumi Dan Alam Semesta 4 Dunia Teknologi Persekitaran hidup menyiasat keperluan asas dan proses kehidupan manusia,binatang dan tumbuhan. Alam fizikal menyentuh konsep ruang dan masa dan fenomena tenaga. Alam bahan mem buat perbandingan antara bahan semulajadi dan bahan buatan manusia . unia dan alam semesta meneliti bumi dan hubungannya dengan matahari,bulan dan planet-planet lain dalam sistem solar. Akhirnya dunia teknologi, menyiasat perkembangan teknologi dalam bidang pertanian,komunikasi,pengangkutan dan pembinaan dan sumbangannya dalam kesejahteraan kehidupan manusia. Setiap bidang penerokaan adalah untuk mencapai kesepaduan dalaman secara melintang supaya apa yang dipelajari hari ini mampu dihubungkaitkan dengan apa yang dipelajari kelmarin dan apa yang akan dipelajari esok dan kesepaduan menegak supaya apa yang dipelajari dalam sesuatu bidang seharusnya berkait dengan bidang penerokaan yang lain.Satu ciri yang penting tentang sains adalah setiap murid seharusnya mencapai tahap minimum kefahaman dan pengalaman dalam setiap disiplin sains. (e) Strategi pengajaran Sukatan PSS merujuk kepada dua pandangan tentang pembelajaran sains. ; pandangan proses dan pandangan konstruktivis. Pandangan pro ses menyokong pendekatan inkuiri (Livermore, 1964). pandangan konstruktivis menyokong kenyataan bahawa murid mengambil bahagian secara aktif dan kreatif dalam membina ilmu kendiri berasaskan pengetahuan sedia ada mereka dari pengalaman yang lalu. (Duit dan Treagust, 1995; Harlen, 1992).Oleh yang demikian strategi pengajaran yang digunakan untuk pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains adalah pembelajaran secara penemuan di mana hasil pembelajaran adalah akiviti-aktiviti murid-murid dan bukan berpusatkan guru. Peranan guru hanya sebagai fasilitator,menyediakan pengalaman ‘hands-on’ menggalakkan murid bertanyakan soalan di mana jawapan akan di cari secara inkuiri tidak hanya menyampaikan ilmu. Guru membimbing murid untuk meneroka sendiri prinsip-prinsip dan konsep sains dengan mengguna idea sendiri untuk melakukan eksperimen,perbincangan,simulasi dan projek. PSS Syllabus Handbook, 1993, m. s. 9). (f)Bahan-Bahan Kurikulum ‘Curriculum materials are basic essentials of scient ific activity in the primary school’ (The International Encyclopaedia of Education, Vol. 9). (i)Tahap I sekolah rendah (Tahun 1,2 dan 3) Dalam PSS (Primary School Science ) Tahap 1 (diimplementasi pada Januari 2003 dalam bahasa Inggeris ),bahan-bahan kukrikulum adalah dalam bentuk pakej yang mengandungi buku panduan guru ,buku aktiviti untuk murid, huraian sukatan untuk guru dan CD-ROMs sebagai sokongan dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran.Guru-guru yang mengajar sains juga dibekalkan dengan komputer riba dan LCD untuk mengintegrasikan penggunaan teknologi ke dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains. (ii)Tahap II sekolah rendah ( Tahun 4,5 and 6) Dalam tahun 4, 5 dan 6 (diimplementasi pada Disember 1994 dalam Bahasa Inggeris), bahan-bahan kurikulum adalah dalam bentuk pakej yang mengandungi buku teks guru,buku teks murid, buku pukal bimbingan dan latihan (PULSAR) untuk guru yang mengandungi 12 modul. Guru juga menggunakan pelbagai buku teks komersial,buku kerja,carta dan bahan lu t sinar. g)Kumpulan sasaran PSS adalah wajib bagi semua murid-murid di sekolah rendah (h)Peruntukan masa Di sekolah rendah, matapelajaran sains diperuntukan 3 waktu seminggu selama 30 minit setiap waktu manakala di sekolah menengah diperuntukkan 5 waktu seminggu selama 30 minit setiap waktu. (i)Pentaksiran Prosedur Pentaksiran dalam KSSR terdiri dari dua bahagian: pentaksiran formatif dan pentaksiran sumatif. Murid-murid ditaksir pada tiga aspek sukatan pelajaran; pengetahuan,kemahiran,sikap dan nilai (KSSR Syllabus Handbook, 1993, m. s. 11- 12).Pentaksiran formatif adalah pentaksiran berasaskan sekolah dalam bentuk ujian bertulis,ujian amali,projek,portfolio, kerja lisan dan kerja kumpulan. Tujuan utama adalah untuk mengesan kelemahan murid dan memperkasakan pembelajaran. Pentaksiran sumatif biasanya terbahagi kepada dua iaitu pentaksiran kerja amali (PEKA) dan UPSR. PEKA adalah penilaian yang berterusan untuk mengukur sejauh mana murid-murid telah menguasai kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran manipulatif sains (Guide to PEKA, 1997). Ianya telah di implementasi dalam tahun enam untuk tempoh enam bulan.Berdasarkan kepada penialaian berasaskan kriteria yang dibangunkan oleh Lembaga Peperiksaan Malaysia ,KPM, guru-guru merancang beberapa siri eksperimen untuk menilai murid di dalam bilik darjah. Instrumen penilaian adalah skala berkadar dan portfolio. Murid-murid dinilai pada lapan kemahiran proses; memerhati, membuat pengkelasan, mengukur dan menggunakan nombor, berkomunikasi, menggunakkan hubungan ruang-masa, mendefinisikan secara operasi, mengawal pembolehubah-pembolehubah dan menjalankan eksperimen.Mereka juga akan dinilai pada lima kemahiran manipulatif; mengguna dan mengendalikan bahan-bahan dan alat radas sains dengan betul, mengendalikan spesimen yang mati dan hidup dengan selamat, melukis specimen,bahan dan alat radas dengan tepat, membersihkan alat radas sains dengan betul, dan menyimpan bahan dan alatan sains denan baik dan selamat. Pentaksiran kepad a aptitud, sikap dan nilai juga dibina dalam item ujian PEKA. Pentaksiran lain adalah UPSR, di mana ianya merupakan suatu bentuk penilaian bertujuan untuk melihat sejauh mana sistem pendidikan menyediakan murid-murid untuk kurikulum sekolah menengah.Ianya adalah ujian bertulis yang mengandungi dua bahagian; bahagian A dan bahagian B. Bahagian A mengandungi tiga puluh soalan aneka pilihan dan bahagian B mengandungi lima soalan berstruktur. Peruntukan markah untuk bahagian A adalah 30 markah dan bahagian B adalah 20 markah. Penekanan diberikan kepada soalan-soalan dalam bahagian B yang menguji kebolehan murid-murid berfikir secara kritis dan kreatif. Untuk mendapat keputusan yang baik dalam peperiksaan sains, murid harus lulus pada Bahagian B. Yang menariknya markah yang dicapai dalam PEKA, tidak menyumbang terus kepada pencapaian keseluruhan markah dalam UPSR.Ini mungkin akan menjejaskan penyalahgunaan sistem dimana penilaian dalam PEKA tidak dijalankan secara serius oleh guru-guru k erana ianya bersifat terlalu subjektif. (Reference: Tan, J. N. (1999). The Development and Implementation of The Primary School Science Curriculum in Malaysia. Unpublished PhD thesis of the University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom. ) | Latihan| 1Tulis satu laporan perubahan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah di Malaysia. 2. Nyatakan rasional perubahan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah di Malaysia. 3.Lukis jadual untuk membuat pembandingan bagi setiap kurikulum sains sekolah rendah yang telah dilaksanakan di Malaysia, | Memikir| Kajian kurikulum sains sekolah rendah sekarang. Bincangkan dan tulis laporan sama ada kurikulum ini adalah adaptasi, pengubahsuaian atau pendekatan baru daripada kurikulum sebelumnya. Rujukan Tan, J. N. (1999). The Development and Implementation of The Primary School Science Curriculum in Malaysia. Unpublished PhD thesis of the University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom. Pusat Pembangunan Kurikulum (2002). Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Sain s. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia | Tamat Topik 2|TAJUK 3| Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia I| SINOPSIS Topik ini mengkaji objektif, hasil pembelajaran, penekanan, organisasi kandungan dan skop Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia . HASIL PEMBELAJARAN 1. Menerangkan penekanan Falsafah Pendidikan Sains Kebangsaan. 2. Menyatakan matlamat dan objektif kurikulum sains sekolah rendah KBSR 3. Membincangkan cabaran-cabaran yang terlibat dalam menggabungkan kurikulum sains sekolah rendah KBSR dalam pengajaran sains. 4. Menjelaskan organisasi isi kandungan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah KBSR Kerangka Tajuk-tajukRajah 3. 0 Kerangka Tajuk ISI KANDUNGAN 3. 1Objektif Matlamat kurikulum sains sekolah rendah adalah untuk memupuk minat dan kreativiti murid melalui pengalaman dan siasatan setiap hari yang menggalakkan pemerolehan pengetahuan sains dan kemahiran berfikir disamping menerapkan sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni. 3. 2Hasil Pembelajaran Peringkat satu Kurikulum S ains bertujuan : 1. Memupuk minat dan merangsang perasaan ingin tahu murid tentang dunia di sekeliling mereka. 2. Menyediakan murid dengan peluang-peluang untuk mengembangkan kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran berfikir. . Membangunkan kreativiti murid. 4. Menyediakan murid dengan pengetahuan asas dan konsep sains 5. Menyemai sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai positif. 6. Menyedari kepentingan memelihara dan menyayangi alam sekitar Peringkat dua Kurikulum Sains bertujuan : 1. Memupuk minat dan merangsang perasaan ingin tahu murid tentang dunia di sekeliling mereka. 2. Menyediakan murid dengan peluang-peluang untuk mengembangkan kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran berfikir. 3. Membangunkan kreativiti murid. 4. Menyediakan murid dengan pengetahuan asas dan konsep sains 5.Menyediakan peluang pembelajaran untuk murid mengaplikasi pengetahuan dan kemahiran secara kreatif, kritikal dan analitikal bagi menyelesaikan masalah dan membuat keputusan. 6. Menyemai sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai positif. 7. Menghargai sumbangan sains dan teknologi ke arah pembangunan negara dan kesejahteraan manusia. 8. Menyedari kepentingan memelihara dan menyayangi alam sekitar 3. 3Penekanan Sains menekankan penyiasatan dan penyelesaikan masalah. Dalam penyiasatan dan proses penyelesaian masalah, kemahiran dan pemikiran saintifik digunakan.Kemahiran saintifik penting dalam mana-mana penyiasatan saintifik seperti menjalankan eksperimen dan projek. Kemahiran saintifik terdiri daripada kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran manipulasi Berfikir merupakan satu proses mental yang memerlukan seseorang individu mengintegrasikan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan sikap dalam usaha memahami alam sekitar. Salah satu objektif sistem pendidikan negara adalah untuk meningkatkan keupayaan berfikir murid-murid. Objektif ini boleh dicapai melalui kurikulum yang menekankan pembelajaran berfikrah. Pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang menekankan kemahiran berfikir adalah asas untuk pembelajaran berfikrah.Pembelajaran berf ikrah dapat dicapai sekiranya murid terlibat secara aktif dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Aktiviti perlu dirancang untuk memberi peluang kepada murid menggunakan kemahiran berfikir dalam pengkonseptualan, menyelesaikan masalah dan membuat keputusan. Kemahiran berfikir boleh dikategorikan kepada kemahiran pemikiran kritis dan kreatif. Seseorang yang berfikir secara kritis sentiasa menilai sesuatu idea secara sistematik sebelum menerimanya. Seseorang yang berfikir secara kreatif mempunyai tahap imaginasi yang tinggi, mampu untuk menjana idea-idea asal dan inovatif, dan mengubah suai idea dan produk.Strategi pemikiran adalah kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi yang melibatkan pelbagai langkah. Setiap langkah melibatkan pelbagai kemahiran berfikir kritis dan kreatif. Keupayaan untuk merangka strategi pemikiran adalah bermatlamat untuk memperkenalkan aktiviti-aktiviti berfikir dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran . Pengalaman pembelajaran sains boleh digunakan sebagai satu cara untuk m enyemai sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni dalam diri pelajar. Penerapan sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni secara amnya berlaku melalui perkara berikut * Menyedari kepentingan dan keperluan sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni. Memberi penekanan kepada sikap dan nilai-nilai ini. * Mengamal dan menghayati sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni Apabila merancang aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran, guru perlu memberi pertimbangan yang sewajarnya kepada perkara di atas bagi memastikan penerapan sikap dan nilai saintifik yang berterusan . 3. 4Organisasi Kandungan Kurikulum sains dianjurkan secara bertema. Setiap tema terdiri daripada pelbagai bidang pembelajaran, setiap satunya terdiri daripada beberapa objektif pembelajaran. Objektif pembelajaran mempunyai satu atau lebih hasil pembelajaran.Hasil pembelajaran ditulis dengan menyatakan hasil tingkah laku yang boleh diukur, kriteria dan situasi. Secara umum, hasil pembelajaran bagi setiap objektif pembelajaran dinyatakan tahap ke sukarannya. Walau bagaimanapun, dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran, aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran harus dirancang dengan cara yang holistik dan bersepadu yang membolehkan pencapaian hasil pembelajaran yang pelbagai mengikut keperluan dan konteks tertentu. Guru seharusnya mengelak daripada menggunakan strategi pengajaran yang mengasingkan setiap hasil pembelajaran yang dinyatakan di dalam Spesifikasi Kurikulum.Cadangan Aktiviti Pembelajaran memberi maklumat tentang skop dan dimensi hasil pembelajaran. Aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran yang dinyatakan di bawah lajur Cadangan Aktiviti Pembelajaran diberi dengan tujuan untuk menyediakan beberapa panduan tentang bagaimana hasil pembelajaran boleh dicapai. Aktiviti yang dicadangkan boleh meliputi satu atau lebih hasil pembelajaran. Guru boleh mengubahsuai cadangan aktiviti yang sesuai dengan kebolehan dan gaya pembelajaran murid-murid mereka. Guru juga digalakkan mereka bentuk aktiviti pembelajaran yang inovatif dan berkesan untuk men ingkatkan pembelajaran sains . | Latihan|Jawab soalan-soalan berikut. (Rujuk Kurikulum Spesifikasi Sains Rendah. ) Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia I 1. Berikan dua dokumen penting yang mesti dirujuk oleh guru bagi memahami Kurikulum Sains Rendah. Apakah tujuan utama setiap dokumen tersebut? 2. Kurikulum Sains Rendah digubal selaras dengan Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan (FPK). Nyatakan empat elemen penting yang ditekankan dalam FPK 3. Nyatakan matlamat Kurikulum Sains Rendah. Bagaimana matlamat ini selaras dengan aspirasi FPK? 4. Senarai semua objektif Kurikulum Sains Rendah. Apakah perbezaan di antara objektif kurtikulum Tahap I dan Tahap II? . Berikan tiga penekanan utama / unsur-unsur Kurikulum Sains Rendah. Bincangkan cabaran-cabaran dalam menggabungkan penekanan ini ke dalam pelajaran. 6. Senaraikan kemahiran dan nilai-nilai kurikulum yang diharap untuk dibangunkan. Mengapa kemahiran dan nilai-nilai tersebut penting? 7Dengan menggunakan pengurusan grafik yang sesuai, tunjukkan bagaimana kandungan kurikulum sains yang anda pilih dapat dibina. 8. Kurikulum Sains Sekolah dibina berdasarkan tema-tema tertentu. Tuliskan tema-tema tersebut untuk Tahap I dan Tahap II 9. Setiap Tema dalam kandungan kurikulum terdiri daripada pelbagai Bidang Pembelajaran.Bina Jadual Bidang Pembelajaran mengikut tema-tema yang sesuai bagi Tahun 1 hingga 6. Apakah yang dapat anda simpulkan tentang susunan bidang-bidang pembelajaran tersebut? Tema| Tahun 1| Tahun 2| Tahun 3| Tahun 4| Tahun 5| Tahun 6| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10. Dalam Spesifikasi Kurikulum, organisasi kandungan ditunjukkan dengan menggunakan 5 lajur. Nama dan terangkan setiap tajuk lajur tersebut. 11. Kurikulum Sains Rendah mengintegrasikan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan nilai-nilai dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran sains.Dengan memberikan contoh-contoh yang sesuai tunjukkan bagaimana seorang guru dapat mengintegrasikan ketiga-tiga elemen tersebut dala m pelajaran sains. 12. Cadangkan strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang sesuai untuk kurikulum sains sekolah rendah. Berikan penerangan ringkas tentang setiap strategi tersebut. 13. Apakah tiga aspek yang dinilai dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah dan bagaimanakah aspek tersebut dinilai? | Bahan Bacaan dan Internet | Banding bezakan Kurikulum Sains Sekolah Rendah di Malaysia dan New Zealand dari segi objektif, penekanan dan skop. (New Zealand Primary Science Curriculum: ttp://www. tki. org. nz/r/science/curriculum/toc_e. php ) Rujukan Pusat Pembangunan Kurikulum (2002). Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Sains. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia Ministry of Education, Wellington, New Zealand (2002). Science in the New Zealand Curriculum. Retrieved on 10 Sept. 2009 from: http://www. tki. org. nz/r/science/curriculum/toc_e. php | Tamat Topik 3| TAJUK 4| Kurikulum Sains Pendidikan Rendah Malaysia II | SINOPSIS Topik ini membincangkan amalan-amalan yang baik dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran sa ins. Ia merangkumi pelbagai strategi, aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran dan prosedur pentaksiran.HASIL PEMBELAJARAN 1. Mengenalpasti masalah-masalah dalam pembelajaran sains 2. Menghuraikan pelbagai strategi, aktiviti dan pentaksiran yang boleh di implementasi dalam pembelajaran sains.. KERANGKA TAJUK Rajah 4. 0 Kerangka Tajuk ISI KANDUNGAN 4. 1Strategi Pengajaran dan pembelajaran Strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran dalam kurikulum sains menekankan kepada pembelajaran berfikrah. Pembelajaran berfikrah adalah suatu proses yang boleh membantu murid-murid menguasai ilmu pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang akan membantu mereka untuk membangun pemikiran ketahap optimum.Pembelajaran sains berfikrar boleh dicapai melalui pendekatan yang pelbagai seperti inkuiri, konstruktivisme, pembelajaran kontektual dan pembelajaran masteri. Oleh yang demikian aktiviti pembelajaran perlu dirancangkan kepada merangsang pemikiran kraeatif dan kritis murid-murid dan tidak hanya tertumpu kepada pembelajaran secara rutin atau kebiasaan. Murid-murid harus menyedari tentang kemahiran berfikir dan strategi berfikir yang mereka gunakan dalam pembelajaran . Mereka harus di cabar dengan masalah dan soalan-soalan aras tinggi untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang memerlukan kepada penyelesaian masalah.Proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran seharusnya dapat membolehkan murid-murid menguasai ilmu pengetahuan, kemahiran dan memperkembangkan sikap saintifik dan nilai murni secara bersepadu 4. 2Aktiviti Pembelajaran Kepelbagaian kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran mampu meningkatkan minat murid-murid dalam pembelajaran sains. Kelas sains yang tidak menarik akan menjejaskan motivasi murid untuk belajar sains dan ini akan mempengaruhi pencapaian mereka. Pemilihan kaedah pengajaran perlu memenuhi kehendak kurikulum, kebolehan murid, kecerdasan pelbagai murid, dan kemudahan sumber pengajaran dan pembelajaran dan infrastruktur.Aktiviti-aktiviti yang pelbagai harus dirancang untuk murid-murid yang mempunyai gaya pembelaj aran dan kecerdasan yang berbeza-beza. Berikut adalah penjelasan ringkas tentang kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran. 4. 2. 1Eksperimen Eksperimen adalah kaedah yang biasa digunakan dalam kelas sains. Semasa melaksanakan eksperimen murid-murid menguji hipotesis melalui penyiasatan untuk menemukan konsep dan prinsip sains. Semasa menjalankan eksperimen, murid-murid menggunakan kemahiran berfikir, kemahiran saintifik dan kemahiran manipulatif.Aktiviti eksperimen boleh dilaksanakan secara bimbingan guru,atau guru memberi peluang jika bersesuaian kepada murid-murid untuk merekabentuk eksperimen mereka sendiri. Ini melibatkan murid-murid merancang eksperimen, bagaimana membuat pengukuran dan menganalisis data dan pembentangan hasil eksperimen mereka. 4. 2. 2Perbincangan Perbincangan adalah suatu aktiviti dimana murid-murid bertukar-tukar soalan dan pandangan berdasarkan alasan yang jelas. Perbincangan boleh dijalankan sebelum, semasa atau selepas sesuatu aktiviti.Guru memainkan peranan se bagai fasilitator dan memimpin perbincangan untuk merangsang pemikiran dan menggalakkan murid-murid supaya menyatakan pendapat atau pandangan mereka. 4. 2. 3Simulasi Dalam simulasi, aktiviti yang dijalankan menyerupai situasi atau keadaan sebenar. Contoh aktiviti-aktiviti simulasi adalah main peranan , permainan dan penggunaan model. Di dalam aktiviti main peranan murid-murid memainkan peranan yang tertentu berdasarkan syarat-syarat yang diberikan. Permainan memerlukan prosedur yang harus diikuti.Semasa akativiti permainan murid-murid belajar prinsip-prinsip yang spesifik atau memahami proses untuk membuat sesuatu keputusan. Model digunakan untuk mewakili objek-objek atau situasi sebenar supaya murid-murid dapat membuat gambaran mental dan memahami konsep dan prinsip sains yang hendak dipelajari. 4. 2. 4Projek Projek adalah suatu aktiviti pembelajaran yang dilakukan oleh individu atau kumpulan untuk mencapai objektif pembelajaran yang khusus. Projek memerlukan beberapa sesi pengajar an untuk diselesaikan . Hasil projek boleh berbentuk laporan, artifak,atau dalam bentuk persembahan yang akan dibentangkan oleh murid-murid atau guru.Kerja projek menggalakkan perkembangan kemahiran menyelesaikan masalah, pengurusan masa dan pembelajaran individu secara bebas . 4. 2. 5Lawatan dan penggunaan sumber luaran Pembelajaran sains tidak hanya terhad kepada aktiviti-aktiviti yang dijalankan dalam kawasan sekolah sahaja. Pembelajaran sains boleh dikembangkan lagi melalui penggunaan sumber luaran saperti zoo,muzium,pusat-pusat sains,institusi-institusi penyelidikan kawasan paya bakau dan kilang-kilang. Lawatan ke tempat-tempat berikut akan menjadikan pembelajaran sains itu lebih menarik. bermakna dan berkesan. Untuk mengoptimumkan pembelajaran lawatan perlu dirancang dengan teliti.Murid-murid perlu dilibatkan dalam membuat perancangan dan tugasan yang spesifik perlu ditetapkan sebelum lawatan. Lawatan pembelajaran ini tidak akan lengkap tanpa pos-perbincangan selepas lawatan. 4. 2. 6Penggunaan Teknologi Tekno